Decision time

Last updated

In temporal databases, decision time is the time when a decision was made about a fact stored in a database.[ citation needed ] It is used to keep a history of decisions about valid times.

Contents

In a database table, the start and end time of the decision time interval can be represented by adding two table columns. This interval is closed [ in the lower bound, and open at the upper bound ). When a decision has not been replaced, the end time of the decision is unknown, and it can thus be considered valid "until changed" or infinite (∞).

Valid time and decision time are ways of modeling data, and is not applicable for all types of data, [1] and transaction time is hence the most used temporal functionality. [1] The concept of decision time can for example be used in bitemporal databases (together with valid time instead of transaction time), or in tritemporal databases. [2]

History

The term decision time was coined by Mario Nascimento and Margaret Eich (1995). [3]

Although the ISO SQL standard has included support for "application-time period tables" (valid time tables) and "system-versioned tables" (transaction tables) since SQL:2011, it does however not include spesific clauses for decision time.

Comparison with valid time and transaction time

In a tritemporal database, [4] valid times are a history of valid time periods for facts stored in the database. The decision times are a history of decisions about validity times, and transaction times are again a history of decision times. Thus, transaction times are a history of meta-histories ("histories of histories").

Decision time is unconstrained in relationship to valid time, but it must be earlier than the transaction time. For example, the decision time can not be assigned a date in the future.

Example

The following is a list of real events that occurred between the 1964 and 1976 United States presidential elections:

DateDecision makerReal world event
1964-11-03 Electoral College Election of 1964
1968-11-05Electoral College Election of 1968
1972-11-07Electoral College Election of 1972
1973-10-10 Spiro Agnew Agnew resigns
1973-10-12 Richard Nixon Nixon nominates Ford
1973-12-06 Congress Congress confirms Ford
1974-08-09Richard Nixon Nixon resigns
1974-08-20 Gerald Ford Ford nominates Rockefeller
1974-12-19CongressCongress confirms Rockefeller
1976-11-02Electoral College Election of 1976

In this example, a constant 7-day delay is assumed between the decision time and the transaction time when the data is committed to the database. Given those conditions, the database would have contained the following information after the election in 1976:

president, vice_president, valid_from, valid_till, decision_from, decision_to, transaction_from, transaction_to
Administration(Lyndon Johnson,    Hubert Humphrey, 1965-01-20, 1969-01-20,  1964-11-03,           ∞, 1964-11-10,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Spiro Agnew, 1969-01-20, 1973-01-20,  1968-11-05,           ∞, 1968-11-12,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Spiro Agnew, 1973-01-20, 1977-01-20,  1972-11-07,           ∞, 1972-11-14, 1973-10-17) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Spiro Agnew, 1973-01-20, 1977-01-20,  1972-11-07,  1973-10-10, 1973-10-17,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Spiro Agnew, 1973-01-20, 1973-10-10,  1973-10-10,           ∞, 1973-10-17,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,           (Vacant), 1973-10-10, 1977-01-20,  1973-10-10,           ∞, 1973-10-17, 1973-12-13) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Gerald Ford,          ∞, 1977-01-20,  1973-10-12,           ∞, 1973-10-19, 1973-12-13) Administration( Richard Nixon,           (Vacant), 1973-10-10, 1977-01-20,  1973-10-10,  1973-12-06, 1973-12-13,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,           (Vacant), 1973-10-10, 1973-12-06,  1973-12-06,           ∞, 1973-12-13,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Gerald Ford,          ∞, 1977-01-20,  1973-10-12,  1973-12-06, 1973-12-13,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Gerald Ford, 1973-12-06, 1977-01-20,  1973-12-06,           ∞, 1973-12-13, 1974-08-15) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Gerald Ford, 1973-12-06, 1977-01-20,  1973-12-06,  1974-08-08, 1974-08-15,          ∞) Administration( Richard Nixon,        Gerald Ford, 1973-12-06, 1974-08-09,  1974-10-08,           ∞, 1974-08-15,          ∞) Administration(   Gerald Ford,           (Vacant), 1974-08-09, 1977-01-20,  1974-10-08,           ∞, 1974-08-15, 1974-12-26) Administration(   Gerald Ford, Nelson Rockefeller,          ∞, 1977-01-20,  1974-10-20,           ∞, 1974-08-27, 1974-12-26) Administration(   Gerald Ford,           (Vacant), 1974-08-09, 1977-01-20,  1974-10-08,  1974-12-19, 1974-12-26,          ∞) Administration(   Gerald Ford,           (Vacant), 1974-08-09, 1974-12-19,  1974-12-19,           ∞, 1974-12-26,          ∞) Administration(   Gerald Ford, Nelson Rockefeller,          ∞, 1977-01-20,  1974-08-20,  1974-12-19, 1974-12-26,          ∞) Administration(   Gerald Ford, Nelson Rockefeller, 1974-12-19, 1977-01-20,  1974-12-19,           ∞, 1974-12-26,          ∞) Administration(  Jimmy Carter,     Walter Mondale, 1977-01-20, 1981-01-20,  1976-11-02,           ∞, 1976-11-09,          ∞)

Given the 7-day delayed table above, the question "who was president and vice president for the valid time of 1977-01-01" (which given the 7-day delay could provide data for 1976-12-25) would be:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spiro Agnew</span> Vice president of the United States from 1969 to 1973

Spiro Theodore Agnew was the 39th vice president of the United States, serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1973. He is the second of two vice presidents to resign the position, the first being John C. Calhoun in 1832.

This section of the timeline of United States history concerns events from 1970 to 1989

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carl Albert</span> American lawyer and politician (1908–2000)

Carl Bert Albert was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 46th speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1971 to 1977 and represented Oklahoma's 3rd congressional district as a Democrat from 1947 to 1977.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elliot Richardson</span> American lawyer and public servant (1920–1999)

Elliot Lee Richardson was an American lawyer and Republican politician. As a member of the cabinets of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford between 1970 and 1977, Richardson is one of two men in United States history to hold four cabinet positions. As United States Attorney General, Richardson played a prominent role in the Watergate scandal when he resigned in protest against President Nixon's order to fire special prosecutor Archibald Cox. His resignation precipitated a crisis of confidence in Nixon which ultimately led to the president's resignation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Presidency of Gerald Ford</span> U.S. presidential administration from 1974 to 1977

Gerald Ford's tenure as the 38th president of the United States began on August 9, 1974, upon the resignation of president Richard Nixon, and ended on January 20, 1977. Ford, a Republican from Michigan, had been appointed vice president since December 6, 1973, following the resignation of Spiro Agnew from that office. Ford was the only person to serve as president without being elected to either the presidency or the vice presidency. His presidency ended following his narrow defeat in the 1976 presidential election to Democrat Jimmy Carter, after a period of 895 days in office.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rogers Morton</span> American politician

Rogers Clark Ballard Morton was an American politician who served as the U.S. Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Commerce during the administrations of presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, respectively. He also served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Maryland.

A temporal database stores data relating to time instances. It offers temporal data types and stores information relating to past, present and future time. Temporal databases can be uni-temporal, bi-temporal or tri-temporal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1968 Republican National Convention</span> Political convention of the Republican Party

The 1968 Republican National Convention was held at the Miami Beach Convention Center in Miami Beach, Dade County, Florida, USA, from August 5 to August 8, 1968, to select the party's nominee in the general election. It nominated former Vice President Richard M. Nixon for president and Maryland Governor Spiro T. Agnew for vice president. It was the fourth time Nixon had been nominated on the Republican ticket as either its vice presidential or presidential candidate (1960). Symbolic of the South's changing political affiliation, this was the first Republican National Convention held in a prior Confederate State.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of the Watergate scandal</span>

The Watergate scandal refers to the burglary and illegal wiretapping of the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee, in the Watergate complex by members of President Richard Nixon's re-election campaign, and the subsequent cover-up of the break-in resulting in Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, as well as other abuses of power by the Nixon White House that were discovered during the course of the scandal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gerald Ford</span> President of the United States from 1974 to 1977

Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th president of the United States from 1974 to 1977. He previously served as the leader of the Republican Party in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1965 to 1973, and as the 40th vice president under President Richard Nixon from 1973 to 1974. Ford succeeded to the presidency when Nixon resigned in 1974, but was defeated for election to a full term in 1976 by Democrat Jimmy Carter. Ford is the only person to become U.S. president without winning an election for president or vice president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1976 Republican Party presidential primaries</span> Selection of Republican US presidential candidate

From January 19 to June 8 1976, voters of the Republican Party chose its nominee for president in the 1976 United States presidential election. The major candidates were incumbent President Gerald Ford and former Governor of California Ronald Reagan. After a series of primary elections and caucuses, neither secured a majority of the delegates before the convention.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nelson Rockefeller</span> Vice president of the United States from 1974 to 1977

Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller, sometimes referred to by his nickname Rocky, was an American businessman and politician who served as the 41st vice president of the United States from 1974 to 1977 under President Gerald Ford. A member of the Republican Party and the wealthy Rockefeller family, he previously served as the 49th governor of New York from 1959 to 1973. Rockefeller also served as assistant secretary of State for American Republic Affairs for Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman (1944–1945) as well as under secretary of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) under Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1954. A son of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller as well as a grandson of Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller, he was a noted art collector and served as administrator of Rockefeller Center in Manhattan, New York City.

The vice president-elect of the United States is the candidate who has won election to the office of vice president of the United States in a United States presidential election, but is awaiting inauguration to assume the office.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inauguration of Gerald Ford</span> 9th United States intra-term presidential inauguration

The inauguration of Gerald Ford as the 38th president of the United States was held on Friday, August 9, 1974, in the East Room of the White House in Washington, D.C., after President Richard Nixon resigned due to the Watergate scandal. The inauguration – the last non-scheduled, extraordinary inauguration to take place in the 20th century – marked the commencement of Gerald Ford's only term as president. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger administered the oath of office. The Bible upon which Ford recited the oath was held by his wife, Betty Ford, open to Proverbs 3:5–6. Ford was the ninth vice president to succeed to the presidency intra-term, and he remains the most recent to do so, as of 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Second inauguration of Richard Nixon</span> 47th United States presidential inauguration

The second inauguration of Richard Nixon as president of the United States was held on Saturday, January 20, 1973, at the East Portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. This was the 47th inauguration and marked the commencement of the second and final term of both Richard Nixon as president and Spiro Agnew as vice president. Both Agnew and Nixon resigned within two years of this term. In December 1973, Gerald Ford replaced Agnew as vice president and in the following year, replaced Nixon as president. This made Nixon the first and, as of 2023, only person to be inaugurated four times as both president and vice president. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger administered both the presidential and vice presidential oaths of office. During the ceremony, Look With Pride On Our Flag, a song dedicated to President Nixon and composed by Hank Fort, was played.

On August 9, 1974, President Richard Nixon was forced to resign amid the Watergate scandal. Vice President Gerald Ford ascended to the presidency, leaving the office of vice president vacant. Under the terms of the 25th Amendment, a vice presidential vacancy is filled when the president nominates a candidate who is confirmed by both houses of Congress, which were controlled by the Democrats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1973 United States vice presidential confirmation</span> US vice president confirmation in 1973

On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign following a controversy over his personal taxes. Under the terms of the 25th Amendment, a vice presidential vacancy is filled when the president nominates a candidate who is confirmed by both houses of Congress. President Richard Nixon thus had the task of selecting a vice president who could receive the majority support of both houses of Congress, which were then controlled by the Democrats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1960 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection</span>

This article lists those who were potential candidates for the Republican nomination for Vice President of the United States in the 1960 election. After winning the Republican presidential nomination at the 1960 Republican National Convention, Vice President Richard Nixon needed to choose a running mate. President Dwight D. Eisenhower strongly supported UN Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Though Lodge lacked charisma as a campaigner, his foreign policy experience and stature as ambassador made him an appealing candidate. However, Lodge was unpopular with the Republican right, who did not want a Northeastern moderate on the ticket. Nixon also strongly considered conservative Minnesota Representative Walter Judd and moderate Kentucky Senator Thruston Morton. After a closed session with Republican Party leaders, Nixon announced his choice of Lodge. The Republican convention ratified Nixon's choice of Lodge. The Nixon–Lodge ticket lost the 1960 election to the Democratic ticket of Kennedy–Johnson.

References

  1. 1 2 Sehn, Tim (2023-08-07). "So you want a Temporal Database? | DoltHub Blog" . Retrieved 2024-02-10.
  2. ↑ "A SURVEY ON TEMPORAL DATA AND ITS RELATED CONCEPTS - S.SENTHILARASI, Research Scholar Department of Computer Science, Vels Institute of Science, Technology & Advanced Studies (VISTAS) Dr.S.Kamalakkannan, Associate Professor Department of Information Technology Vels Instituteof Science, Technology & Advanced Studies (VISTAS)".
  3. ↑ Mario A. Nascimento, Margaret H. Eich, “Decision Time in Temporal Databases”, In Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Temporal Representation and Reasoning, 1995, pp. 157-162
  4. ↑ "Semantics of Temporal Models With Multiple Temporal Dimensions - Peter Kraft and Jens Otto Sørensen, Aarhus School of Business, Denmark" (PDF).
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.