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A grammatical case is a category of nouns and noun modifiers which corresponds to one or more potential grammatical functions for a nominal group in a wording. In various languages, nominal groups consisting of a noun and its modifiers belong to one of a few such categories. For instance, in English, one says I see them and they see me: the nominative pronouns I/they represent the perceiver and the accusative pronouns me/them represent the phenomenon perceived. Here, nominative and accusative are cases, that is, categories of pronouns corresponding to the functions they have in representation.
Animacy is a grammatical and semantic feature, existing in some languages, expressing how sentient or alive the referent of a noun is. Widely expressed, animacy is one of the most elementary principles in languages around the globe and is a distinction acquired as early as six months of age.
In linguistic typology, split ergativity is a feature of certain languages where some constructions use ergative syntax and morphology, but other constructions show another pattern, usually nominative–accusative. The conditions in which ergative constructions are used vary among different languages.
In linguistic typology, ergative–absolutive alignment is a type of morphosyntactic alignment in which the single argument ("subject") of an intransitive verb behaves like the object of a transitive verb, and differently from the agent ("subject") of a transitive verb. Examples include Basque, Georgian, Mayan, Tibetan, and certain Indo-European languages. It has also been attributed to the Semitic modern Aramaic languages. Ergative languages are classified into 2 groups: those that are morphologically ergative but syntactically behave as accusative and those that—on top of being ergative morphologically—also show ergativity in syntax. No language has been recorded in which both the morphological and syntactical ergative are present. Languages that belong to the former group are more numerous than those to the latter. Dyirbal is said to be the only representative of syntactic ergativity, yet it displays accusative alignment with certain pronouns.
In linguistic typology, nominative–accusative alignment is a type of morphosyntactic alignment in which subjects of intransitive verbs are treated like subjects of transitive verbs, and are distinguished from objects of transitive verbs in basic clause constructions. Nominative–accusative alignment can be coded by case-marking, verb agreement and/or word order. It has a wide global distribution and is the most common alignment system among the world's languages. Languages with nominative–accusative alignment are commonly called nominative–accusative languages.
In linguistic typology, tripartite alignment is a type of morphosyntactic alignment in which the main argument ('subject') of an intransitive verb, the agent argument ('subject') of a transitive verb, and the patient argument of a transitive verb are each treated distinctly in the grammatical system of a language. This is in contrast with nominative-accusative and ergative-absolutive alignment languages, in which the argument of an intransitive verb patterns with either the agent argument of the transitive or with the patient argument of the transitive. Thus, whereas in English, "she" in "she runs" patterns with "she" in "she finds it", and an ergative language would pattern "she" in "she runs" with "her" in "he likes her", a tripartite language would treat the "she" in "she runs" as morphologically and/or syntactically distinct from either argument in "he likes her".
Alyutor or Alutor is a language of Russia that belongs to the Chukotkan branch of the Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages.
In linguistics, an unaccusative verb is an intransitive verb whose grammatical subject is not a semantic agent. In other words, the subject does not actively initiate, or is not actively responsible for, the action expressed by the verb. An unaccusative verb's subject is semantically similar to the direct object of a transitive verb or to the subject of a verb in the passive voice.
The dative construction is a grammatical way of constructing a sentence, using the dative case. A sentence is also said to be in dative construction if the subject and the object can switch their places for a given verb, without altering the verb's structure. The latter case is not to be confused with the passive voice, where only the direct object of a sentence becomes the subject of the passive-voiced sentence, and the verb's structure also changes to convey the meaning of the passive voice. The dative construction tends to occur when the verb indicates a state rather than an action.
The definition of a direct–inverse language is a matter under research, but it is widely understood to involve different grammar for transitive predications according to the relative positions of their "subject" and their "object" on a person hierarchy, which, in turn, is some combination of saliency and animacy specific to a given language. The direct construction is the unmarked one. The direct construction is used when the subject of the transitive clause outranks the object in the person hierarchy, and the inverse is used when the object outranks the subject.
Hindustani, the lingua franca of Northern India and Pakistan, has two standardised registers: Hindi and Urdu. Grammatical differences between the two standards are minor but each uses its own script: Hindi uses Devanagari while Urdu uses an extended form of the Perso-Arabic script, typically in the Nastaʿlīq style.
In linguistic typology, a verb–object–subject or verb–object–agent language, which is commonly abbreviated VOS or VOA, is one in which most sentences arrange their elements in that order. That would be the equivalent in English to "Drank cocktail Sam." The relatively rare default word order accounts for only 3% of the world's languages. It is the fourth-most common default word order among the world's languages out of the six. It is a more common default permutation than OVS and OSV but is significantly rarer than SOV, SVO, and VSO. Families in which all or many of their languages are VOS include the following:
Symmetrical voice, also known as Austronesian alignment, the Philippine-type voice system or the Austronesian focus system, is a typologically unusual kind of morphosyntactic alignment in which "one argument can be marked as having a special relationship to the verb". This special relationship manifests itself as a voice affix on the verb that corresponds to the syntactic role of a noun within the clause, that is either marked for a particular grammatical case or is found in a privileged structural position within the clause or both.
Wagiman, also spelt Wageman, Wakiman, Wogeman, and other variants, is a near-extinct Aboriginal Australian language spoken by a small number of Wagiman people in and around Pine Creek, in the Katherine Region of the Northern Territory.
In linguistics, quirky subjects are a phenomenon where certain verbs specify that their subjects are to be in a case other than the nominative. These non-nominative subjects are determiner phrases that pass subjecthood tests such as subject-oriented anaphora binding, PRO control, reduced relative clause, conjunction reduction, subject-to-subject raising, and subject-to-object raising.
The grammar of the Marathi language shares similarities with other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Odia, Gujarati or Punjabi. The first modern book exclusively about the grammar of Marathi was printed in 1805 by Willam Carey.
In linguistics, differential object marking (DOM) is the phenomenon in which certain objects of verbs are marked to reflect various syntactic and semantic factors. One form of the more general phenomenon of differential argument marking, DOM is present in more than 300 languages. The term "differential object marking" was coined by Georg Bossong.
In linguistics, a yes–no question, also known as a binary question, a polar question, or a general question, is a question whose expected answer is one of two choices, one that provides an affirmative answer to the question versus one that provides a negative answer to the question. Typically, in English, the choices are either "yes" or "no". Yes–no questions present an exclusive disjunction, namely a pair of alternatives of which only one is a felicitous answer. In English, such questions can be formed in both positive and negative forms
In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments. When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. When the subject both performs and receives the action expressed by the verb, the verb is in the middle voice.
In generative linguistics, Burzio's generalization is the observation that a verb can assign a theta role to its subject position if and only if it can assign an accusative case to its object. Accordingly, if a verb does not assign a theta role to its subject, then it does not assign accusative case to its object. The generalization is named after Italian linguist Luigi Burzio, based on work published in the 1980s, but the seeds of the idea are found in earlier scholarship. The generalization can be logically written in the following equation:
θ ↔ A Where: θ = Subject Theta Role A = Accusative Case
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Seržant, Ilja A.; Witzlack-Makarevich, Alena (2018). Seržant, Ilja; Witzlack-Makarevich, Alena (eds.). Diachrony of differential argument marking (pdf). Berlin: Language Science Press. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1219168 . ISBN 9783961100859.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Dalrymple, Mary; Nikolaeva, Irina (2011). Objects and information structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521199858. OCLC 711047863.
- ↑ Bossong, Georg (1985). Empirische Universalienforschung: differentielle Objektmarkierung in den neuiranischen Sprachen. Tübingen: Narr. ISBN 978-3878083641. OCLC 13348020.
- 1 2 de Hoop, Helen; de Swart, Peter, eds. (2009). Differential Subject Marking. Vol. 72. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6497-5. ISBN 978-1-4020-6498-2. ISSN 0924-4670.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) - 1 2 McGregor, William B. (2010). "Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective". Lingua. 120 (7): 1610–1636. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2009.05.010. ISSN 0024-3841.
- 1 2 de Hoop, Helen; de Swart, Peter (2009). Differential Subject Marking. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-6497-5.
- ↑ Chappell, Hilary; Verstraete, Jean-Christophe (2019). "Optional and alternating case marking: Typology and diachrony". Language and Linguistics Compass. 13 (3): e12311. doi:10.1111/lnc3.12311. ISSN 1749-818X. S2CID 108332641.
- 1 2 Iemmolo, Giorgio (2014). "Symmetric and asymmetric alternations in direct object encoding" (PDF). STUF - Language Typology and Universals. 66 (4): 378–403. doi:10.1524/stuf.2013.0019. ISSN 2196-7148. S2CID 197670084.
- ↑ Aissen, Judith (2003). "Differential Object Marking: Iconicity vs. Economy". Natural Language & Linguistic Theory. 21 (3): 435–483. doi:10.1023/A:1024109008573. S2CID 170258629.
- ↑ Næss, Åshild (2004). "What markedness marks: the markedness problem with direct objects". Lingua. 114 (9–10): 1186–1212. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2003.07.005. ISSN 0024-3841.
- 1 2 3 Croft, William (November 2002). Typology and Universals by William Croft. Cambridge Core. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511840579. ISBN 9780511840579 . Retrieved 2019-01-21.
- ↑ Aissen, Judith (2003-08-01). "Differential Object Marking: Iconicity vs. Economy". Natural Language & Linguistic Theory. 21 (3): 435–483. doi:10.1023/A:1024109008573. ISSN 1573-0859. S2CID 170258629.
- ↑ Mohanan, Tara. 1990. Arguments in Hindi. PhD Dissertation, Stanford University. [p. 104]
- ↑ Iemmolo, Giorgio (2010-01-01). "Topicality and differential object marking: Evidence from Romance and beyond" (PDF). Studies in Language. International Journal Sponsored by the Foundation "Foundations of Language". 34 (2): 239–272. doi:10.1075/sl.34.2.01iem. ISSN 0378-4177. S2CID 51471322.
- ↑ Tournadre, Nicolas (1995-07-17). "Tibetan Ergativity and the Trajectory Model". Senri Ethnological Studies (in Japanese). 41: 261–275. doi:10.15021/00002998. ISSN 0387-6004.
- ↑ Iemmolo, Giorgio. 2011. Towards a typological study of differential object marking and differential object indexation. PhD Thesis, University of Pavia.