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The West Slavic languages are a subdivision of the Slavic language group. They include Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian. The languages have traditionally been spoken across a mostly continuous region encompassing the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, the westernmost regions of Ukraine and Belarus, and a bit of eastern Lithuania. In addition, there are several language islands such as the Sorbian areas in Lusatia in Germany, and Slovak areas in Hungary and elsewhere.
The Eighty Years' War or Dutch Revolt (c.1566/1568–1648) was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands between disparate groups of rebels and the Spanish government. The causes of the war included the Reformation, centralisation, taxation, and the rights and privileges of the nobility and cities. After the initial stages, Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Netherlands, deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebel-held territories. However, widespread mutinies in the Spanish army caused a general uprising. Under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent, the Catholic- and Protestant-dominated provinces sought to establish religious peace while jointly opposing the king's regime with the Pacification of Ghent, but the general rebellion failed to sustain itself. Despite Governor of Spanish Netherlands and General for Spain, the Duke of Parma's steady military and diplomatic successes, the Union of Utrecht continued their resistance, proclaiming their independence through the 1581 Act of Abjuration, and establishing the Protestant-dominated Dutch Republic in 1588. In the Ten Years thereafter, the Republic made remarkable conquests in the north and east against a struggling Spanish Empire, and received diplomatic recognition from France and England in 1596. The Dutch colonial empire emerged, which began with Dutch attacks on Portugal's overseas territories.
The Winkler Prins is a Dutch-language encyclopedia, founded by the Dutch poet and clergyman Anthony Winkler Prins (1817–1908) and published by Elsevier. It has run through nine printed editions; the first, issued in 16 volumes from 1870 to 1882, and the last, numbering 26 volumes, from 1990 to 1993. Winkler Prins has been the most distinguished printed encyclopedia in the Dutch language. Publisher Elsevier collaborated with the Microsoft Corporation to put the 1993 version plus any new additions onto CD-ROM in 1997 as the Dutch-language version of Encarta.
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The Prince-Bishopric of Münster was a large ecclesiastical principality in the Holy Roman Empire, located in the northern part of today's North Rhine-Westphalia and western Lower Saxony. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, it was often held in personal union with one or more of the nearby ecclesiastical principalities of Cologne, Paderborn, Osnabrück, Hildesheim, and Liège.
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The Prince-Bishopric of Hildesheim was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire from the Middle Ages until its dissolution in 1803. The Prince-Bishopric must not be confused with the Diocese of Hildesheim, which was larger and over which the prince-bishop exercised only the spiritual authority of an ordinary bishop.
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The Münster Diocesan Feud, or simply Münster Feud, was a dispute that took place between 1450 and 1457 over the appointment to the bishop's throne in Münster, and hence the rule of the diocese. The cause was the death of the previous prince-bishop, Henry II of Moers. The opposing candidates were his brother Walram of Moers, Eric of Hoya, and Conrad of Diepholz. They were supported by their families with Count John of Hoya, Archbishop Dietrich II of Moers and Prince-Bishop Rudolf of Diepholz at their respective heads. In addition, there were also external allies. Within the diocese the Stände, namely the cathedral chapter and the town of Münster, played an independent role at times. In the end neither candidate was able to succeed to the office.
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The Wars of the Loon Succession is the name of the war of succession that arose after the childless death of Louis IV, Count of Loon on 22 January 1336. In the first period, the County of Loon led by claimant Diederik of Heinsberg managed to maintain its autonomy in relation to the Prince-Bishopric of Liège. During the second period, however, Arnold of Rummen, the last indigenous claimant to the title of count of Loon, first had to sell the County of Chiny to the Duchy of Luxemburg to cover his military expenses, and soon after conceded defeat. The wars came to an end with the annexation of Loon by Liège in 1366.
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Factionalism in the medieval Low Countries, in Dutch historiography known as partijstrijd or (partij)twisten, comprises several political, military and socio-economic conflicts in the Low Countries during the Middle Ages, especially the Late Middle Ages. The so-called 'parties' usually behaved like factions, which were formed ad hoc, could rapidly change in composition, and usually did not have strong ideological underpinnings. They were not officially organised political parties as would emerge in the 19th century. The parties were normally led by an aristocratic clan, followed by patrician families, and eventually several groups from the bourgeoisie, generally organised by guilds. These groups could often switch allegiances, names and goals, secede or defect, depending on how situations and interests evolved. Usually there were long-term tensions and only brief military confrontations, which either resulted in a new balance of power, or confirmed the status quo. The ruling dynasties or bishops could be dependent on the support from the strongest faction in order to govern, and in case of a war of succession, pretenders were compelled to ally themselves with one party or the other to stand a chance as seizing power. Foreign powers could interfere in factionalist struggles by providing financial or military support, and sometimes take over control of a province with the help of a local party.
References
- 1 2 3 Wilhelm Kohl. Die Bistümer der Kirchenprovinz Köln. Das Bistum Münster 7,1: Die Diözese. Berlin, 1999. Germania Sacra , New Series, Vol. 37,1; ISBN 978-3-11-016470-1 ( , p. 170, at Google Books), pp. 170–184.
- ↑ Istvan Bejczý, Een kennismaking met de middeleeuwse wereld (2004) 76–77, 199. Bussum: Uitgeverij Coutinho.
- 1 2 Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "bisschop §5.1 Investituurstrijd". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.
- ↑ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Investituurstrijd". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.
- ↑ Printy, Michael (2006). Enlightenment and the Creation of German Catholicism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–84. ISBN 9780521478397 . Retrieved 18 January 2020.
- ↑ Welz, Reinhard (2006). Alte europäische Städte. Mannheim: Reinhard Welz Vermittler Verlag e.K. p. 415. ISBN 9783866563667 . Retrieved 22 January 2020.