Effects of divorce

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Divorce can affect both the people getting divorced and any children they may have in both the short and long term. After a divorce, the couple often experiences effects including decreased levels of happiness, [1] a change in economic status, and emotional problems. The effects on children can include academic, behavioral, and psychological problems. Studies suggest that children with divorced parents are more likely to exhibit such behavioral issues than those with non-divorced parents. [2]

Contents

Effect on children

The impact of divorce on children – Tamara D. Afifi at a TED talk

A longitudinal study by Judith Wallerstein reports the long-term negative effects of divorce on children. [3]

Linda Waite analyzed the relationship between marriage, divorce, and happiness using the National Survey of Family and Households and found that unhappily married families who had divorced were no happier than those who had stayed together. [4] One broad-based study also shows that people have an easier time recovering after the death of a parent as opposed to a divorce. This study reported that children who lose a parent are usually able to attain the same level of happiness that they had before the death, whereas children of divorced parents are often not able to attain the same level of happiness that they had before the divorce. [5]

Development and behavior

A child affected by divorce at an early age will show effects later in life. Children can be affected socially; they may seem to become defiant in certain aspects. In heavy research, many have seen children become isolated after experiencing their parents' divorce. Children soon decide they should start growing up much quicker than they need to due to the amount of stress they have taken on. They may make premature transitions to adulthood, such as leaving home or parenting their own child early. [6] It is believed that this type of attitude and action occur due to the children feeling they are the reason why their parents split. Recent authors have argued that a major cost to children comes long after they attempt to form stable marriages themselves. Parental divorce leads a child to have lower trust in future relationships. [7] Compared with children of always-married parents, children of divorced parents have more positive attitudes towards divorce [8] and less favorable attitudes towards marriage. [9]

Mental health

According to some, custody arrangements after a parent's separation or divorce can be beneficial to the child, as long as both parties are willing to cooperate. [10] According to most, the children of divorced parents have also been reported as more likely to have behavioral problems than children of married parents and are more likely to suffer abuse than children in intact families. [11] When parental conflict is continuous, it can cause problems for the child and become harmful to them. [10] This type of conflict causes harm because it can be frightening and cause the child to be torn or stuck in the middle, [10] as well as forcing the child to deal with inconsistent parenting, which can cause each parent to undermine each other. [10] Because of these conflicts, the parents are not able to meet the child's needs, hurting the child's overall well-being and mental health. [10]

Physical health

A 2015 article updated and confirmed the findings in a 2002 article in Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. Both articles discuss a variety of health consequences for the children of divorced parents. Studies have claimed that people who have been in divorced families have higher rates of alcoholism and other substance abuse compared to those who have never been divorced. Robert H. Coombs, Professor of Behavioral Sciences at UCLA, reviewed over 130 studies measuring how marital status affects personal well-being. Researchers have also shown that children of divorced or separated parents have higher rates of clinical depression, family disruption, and low socioeconomic status in early childhood, increasing the long-term risk for major depression. Children of divorced or separated parents also seek formal psychiatric care at higher rates, are more likely to die by suicide, acute infectious diseases, digestive illnesses, parasitic diseases, respiratory illnesses, and severe injuries, and have lower life expectancies in men. Other issues include increased risk of cancer, strokes, heart problems, rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoarthritis. Having divorced parents can also cause an increased risk of arthritis for children later in life and lower levels of the hormone oxytocin in adulthood.

Views on divorce

In contrast to the usual negative views on marriage by children affected by it, Constance Ahrons, in We're Still Family: What Grown Children Have to Say About Their Parents' Divorce, [12] interviewed 98 divorced families' children for numerous subjects and found a few of the children saying, "I saw some of the things my parents did and know not to do that in my marriage and see the way they treated each other and know not to do that to my spouse and my children. I know [the divorce] has made me more committed to my husband and my children." [12] In the book For Better or For Worse: Divorce Reconsidered, Mavis Hetherington [13] reports that not all kids fare so badly and that divorce can help children living in high-conflict homes, such as those with domestic violence. A peaceful divorce has less of an impact on children than a contested divorce. [12]

Contrary to some of the previous research, those with divorced parents were no more likely than those from intact families to regard divorce positively or to see it as an easy way of solving the problem of a failing marriage. Members of both groups felt that divorce should be avoided but that it was also a necessary option when a relationship could not be rescued. [14] A study by Wolfinger, N. H. (2011), titled "More Evidence for Trends in the Intergenerational Transmission of Divorce", attempted to understand the validity of this socially held claim. In essence, the study attempts to find evidence as to whether divorce transmission (or the likeliness of a child of divorce being a higher predictor of personal divorce) is still relevant in today’s climate. Their research uses data from the General Social Survey (GSS) (Davis & Smith, 2007). To randomize the research, an adult was chosen from each home between the ages of 18 and 89. Data was collected between the years 1973 and 1994, and individuals were chosen only if 30 years had passed since they were initially married, which ended up being a sample of 7,226 individuals. Interestingly, the study finds "clear evidence of a decline in divorce transmission" and it "demonstrates that divorced people die younger; it has also been shown that parental divorce decreases life expectancy." [15] These findings also support claims made in the mortality section. However, the study did show that "the divorce cycle is strongest for people who experience multiple family structure transitions in their families of origin", [15] or rather, recurring parental divorces. To summarize, divorce transmission, according to this study, is in fact generally declining. Where there is exposure to multiple divorces, however, an increased rate of transmission is seen. [15]

Uncontested divorce

An uncontested divorce is a divorce decree that neither party is fighting. Over 40% of American children will experience parental divorce or separation during their childhood. [16] In a study of the effect of relocation after a divorce, researchers found that parents relocating far away from each other (with either both moving or one moving) has a long-term effect on children. [17] Researchers found major differences in divorced families in which one parent moved away from the child; the children (as college students) received less financial support from their parents compared with divorced families in which neither parent moved. The children also felt more distress related to the divorce and did not feel a sense of emotional support from their parents. A parental divorce influences a child’s behavior in a negative manner, which leads to anger, frustration, and depression. This negative behavior is cast outward in their academic and personal lives. Relocating is defined as when a parent moves more than an hour away from their children. Children of divorces where both parents stayed close together did not have these negative effects. [17]

Mortality

In a study titled "Divorce and Death: Forty Years of the Charleston Heart Study", the impact of divorce on the adult lifespan following separation is explored. To achieve this, the research team surveyed a sample of more than 1,300 adults, who were periodically checked in between 1960 and 2000. According to Sbarra (2009), [18] the study found that "participants who were separated or divorced at the start of the study evidenced significantly elevated rates of early mortality, and these results held after adjusting for baseline health status and other demographic variables." These findings suggest that a key predictor of early death is the amount of time people live as recipients of divorce. Let it be noted that mortality was not as negatively affected if the individual remarried. This article (although stand-alone) may hold value as it expresses the physiological impacts of divorce on the individual, which resolve into diminished lifespans.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adoption</span> Parenting a child in place of the original parents

Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parents to the adoptive parents.

Divorce is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganising of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. It can be said to be a legal dissolution of a marriage by a court or other competent body. It is the legal process of ending a marriage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parenting</span> Process of raising a child

Parenting or child rearing promotes and supports the physical, emotional, social, spiritual and cognitive development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sibling</span> One of two or more individuals having at least one parent in common

A sibling is a relative that shares at least one parent with the other person. A male sibling is a brother, and a female sibling is a sister. Somebody with no siblings is an only child.

Parental alienation is a theorized process through which a child becomes estranged from one parent as the result of the psychological manipulation of another parent. The child's estrangement may manifest itself as fear, disrespect or hostility toward the distant parent, and may extend to additional relatives or parties. The child's estrangement is disproportionate to any acts or conduct attributable to the alienated parent. Parental alienation can occur in any family unit, but is claimed to occur most often within the context of family separation, particularly when legal proceedings are involved, although the participation of professionals such as lawyers, judges and psychologists may also contribute to conflict.

Child discipline is the methods used to prevent future unwanted behaviour in children. The word discipline is defined as imparting knowledge and skill, in other words, to teach. In its most general sense, discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a disciple. To discipline means to instruct a person to follow a particular code of conduct.

An only child is a person with no siblings, by birth or adoption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Same-sex parenting</span> Parenting of children by same-sex couples

Same-sex parenting is the parenting of children by same-sex couples generally consisting of gays or lesbians who are often in civil partnerships, domestic partnerships, civil unions, or same-sex marriages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parenting styles</span> Psychological construct

A parenting style is a pattern of behaviors, attitudes, and approaches that a parent uses when interacting with and raising their child. The study of parenting styles is based on the idea that parents differ in their patterns of parenting and that these patterns can have a significant impact on their children's development and well-being. Parenting styles are distinct from specific parenting practices, since they represent broader patterns of practices and attitudes that create an emotional climate for the child. Parenting styles also encompass the ways in which parents respond to and make demands on their children.

Meta-emotion is "an organized and structured set of emotions and cognitions about the emotions, both one's own emotions and the emotions of others". This broad definition of meta-emotion sparked psychologists' interest in the topic, particularly regarding parental meta-emotion philosophy.

Gene–environment correlation is said to occur when exposure to environmental conditions depends on an individual's genotype.

Parent management training (PMT), also known as behavioral parent training (BPT) or simply parent training, is a family of treatment programs that aims to change parenting behaviors, teaching parents positive reinforcement methods for improving pre-school and school-age children's behavior problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholism in family systems</span> Social and psychological factors that cause alcoholism in families

Alcoholism in family systems refers to the conditions in families that enable alcoholism and the effects of alcoholic behavior by one or more family members on the rest of the family. Mental health professionals are increasingly considering alcoholism and addiction as diseases that flourish in and are enabled by family systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sibling relationship</span> Relationship between siblings

Siblings play a unique role in one another's lives that simulates the companionship of parents as well as the influence and assistance of friends. Because siblings often grow up in the same household, they have a large amount of exposure to one another, like other members of the immediate family. However, though a sibling relationship can have both hierarchical and reciprocal elements, this relationship tends to be more egalitarian and symmetrical than with family members of other generations. Furthermore, sibling relationships often reflect the overall condition of cohesiveness within a family.

A gatekeeper parent, in legal setting, is a parent who appoints themself the power to decide what relationship is acceptable between the other parent and the child(ren). The term is broad and may include power dynamics within a marriage or may describe the behaviors of divorced or never married parents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corporal punishment in the home</span> Form of punishment used by parents to inflict physical pain or discomfort

Physical or corporal punishment by a parent or other legal guardian is any act causing deliberate physical pain or discomfort to a minor child in response to some undesired behavior. It typically takes the form of spanking or slapping the child with an open hand or striking with an implement such as a belt, slipper, cane, hairbrush, paddle, whip, or hanger. On a looser definition, it can also include shaking, pinching, forced ingestion of substances, or forcing children to stay in uncomfortable positions.

The effects of domestic violence on children have a tremendous impact on the well-being and developmental growth of children witnessing it. Children can be exposed to domestic violence in a multitude of ways and goes beyond witnessing or overhearing, although there is disagreement in how it should be measured. Children who are exposed to domestic violence in the home often believe that they are to blame, live in a constant state of fear, and are 15 times more likely to be victims of child abuse. Close observation during an interaction can alert providers to the need for further investigation and intervention, such as dysfunctions in the physical, behavioral, emotional, and social areas of life, and can aid in early intervention and assistance for child victims.

Triple P is a parenting intervention with the main goals of increasing the knowledge, skills, and confidence of parents and reducing the prevalence of mental health, emotional, and behavioral problems in children and adolescents. The program was originally specifically tailored for at risk children and parents, but there are now different levels of Triple P designed to work together as a broad, universal, public health approach. This program is based on principles of community psychology.

Childhood obesity is defined as a body mass index (BMI) at or above the 96th percentile for children of the same age and sex. It can cause a variety of health problems, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease, diabetes, breathing problems, sleeping problems, and joint problems later in life. Children who are obese are at a greater risk for social and psychological problems as well, such as peer victimization, increased levels of aggression, and low self-esteem. Many environmental and social factors have been shown to correlate with childhood obesity, and researchers are attempting to use this knowledge to help prevent and treat the condition. When implemented early, certain forms of behavioral and psychological treatment can help children regain and/or maintain a healthy weight.

Father absence occurs when parents separate and the father no longer lives with his children and provides no parental investment. Parental separation has been proven to affect a child's development and behavior. Early parental divorce has been associated with greater internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the child, while divorce later in childhood or adolescence may dampen academic performance.

References

  1. ↑ Lucas, R (2007). "Adaptation and the set-point model of subjective well-being: Does happiness change after major life events?". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 16: 75–79. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00479.x. S2CID   18842089.
  2. ↑ School of Family, Consumer, and Nutrition Sciences (Miller, 2003)
  3. ↑ 1. Wallerstein, J. S., Lewis, J. M., & Blakeslee, S. (2001). The Unexpected Legacy of Divorce: The 25 Year Landmark Study. Hachette Books. ISBN   0-7868-6394-3
  4. ↑ Waite, L. J., Browning, D., Doherty, W. J., Gallagher, M., Luo, Y. & Stanley, S. M. (2003). "Does Divorce Make People Happy? Findings from a Study of Unhappy Marriages". Institute for American Values. ISBN   1-931764-03-4
  5. ↑ Tebeka, S.; Hoertel, N.; Dubertret, C.; Le Strat, Y. (2016). "Parental divorce or death during childhood and adolescence and its association with mental health". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 204 (9): 678–685. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000549. PMID   27356119. S2CID   38403800.
  6. ↑ Shanahan, M. J. (2000). "Pathways to Adulthood in Changing Societies: Variability and Mechanisms in Life Course Perspective". Annual Review of Sociology. 26: 679. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.667.
  7. ↑ Jacquet, S. E.; Surra, C. A. (2001). "Parental divorce and premarital couples: commitment and other relationship characteristics". Journal of Marriage and Family. 63 (3): 627–638. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00627.x.
  8. ↑ Amato, P. R.; Booth, A. (1999). "The consequences of divorce for attitudes toward divorce and gender roles". Journal of Family Issues. 12 (3): 306–322. doi:10.1177/019251391012003004. S2CID   145631216.
  9. ↑ Jennings, A. M.; Salts, C. J.; Smith, T. A. Jr (1992). "Attitudes toward marriage: Effects of parental conflict, family structure, and gender". Journal of Divorce and Remarriage. 17: 67–78. doi:10.1300/j087v17n01_05.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Steinbach, Anja (2 July 2018). "Children's and Parent's Well-Being in Joint Physical Custody: A literature Review". Wiley Online Library. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
  11. ↑ 1. Fagan, P. F. & Rector, R. E. (2000). The Effects of Divorce in America. The Heritage Foundation. Backgrounder #1373.
  12. 1 2 3 1. Ahrons, C. (2004). We're Still Family: What Grown Children Have to Say About Their Parents' Divorce. Harper Collins. ISBN   0-06-019305-0.
  13. ↑ 1. Hetherington, E. M. & Kelly, J. (2002). For Better or For Worse: Divorce Reconsidered. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN   0-393-04862-4
  14. ↑ Burgoyne, Carole B.; Hames, Rebecca (2002). "Views of Marriage and Divorce". Journal of Divorce & Remarriage. 37 (1–2): 75–100. doi:10.1300/J087v37n01_05. S2CID   141461643.
  15. 1 2 3 Wolfinger, Nicholas H. (2011-05-01). "More Evidence for Trends in the Intergenerational Transmission of Divorce: A Completed Cohort Approach Using Data From the General Social Survey". Demography. 48 (2): 581–592. doi: 10.1007/s13524-011-0025-4 . ISSN   0070-3370. PMID   21509648.
  16. ↑ "Short and long term effects of parental divorce | Institute for Population Research".
  17. 1 2 Braver, S. L.; Ellman, I. M.; Fabricius, W. V. (2003). "Relocation of children after divorce and children's best interests: New evidence and legal considerations". Journal of Family Psychology. 17 (2): 206–219. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.2.206. PMID   12828017.
  18. ↑ Sbarra, David A.; Nietert, Paul J. (January 2009). "Divorce and Death: Forty Years of the Charleston Heart Study". Psychological Science. 20 (1): 107–113. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02252.x. ISSN   0956-7976. PMC   2977944 . PMID   19076315.
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