Electroless deposition (ED) or electroless plating is defined as the autocatalytic process through which metals and metal alloys are deposited onto nonconductive surfaces. [1] [2] [3] These nonconductive surfaces include plastics, ceramics, and glass etc., which can then become decorative, anti-corrosive, and conductive depending on their final functions. Electroless deposition is a chemical processes that create metal coatings on various materials by autocatalytic chemical reduction of metal cations in a liquid bath. Electroless plating in contrast with electroplating processes, where the reduction is achieved by an externally generated electric current. [4] [5] Electroless deposition deposits metals onto 2D and 3D structures such as screws, nanofibers, and carbon nanotubes ; unlike PVD, CVD, and electroplating which are limited to 2D surfaces. [6] Commonly the surface of the substrate is characterized via pXRD, SEM-EDS, and XPS. Key qualifying parameters of these methods are crucial for a researcher’ or company’s purpose for the conductive surfaces. Electroless deposition continues to rise in importance within the microelectronic industry, oil and gas, and aerospace industry.
Electroless deposition was serendipitously discovered by Charles Wurtz in 1846. [7] The nickel-phosphorus bath being used for his experiment spontaneously decomposed and formed nanoparticles. [7] Although Wurtz observed these nanoparticles he did not continue working on this discovery. [2] [7] 70 years François Auguste Roux rediscovered the electroless deposition process and patented it in United States as the ‘Process of producing metallic deposits. [5] [7] Roux deposited nickel on a substrate, but his invention did not seem to receive much commercial use. [7] [5] In 1946 the process was re-discovered by Abner Brenner and Grace E. Riddell while working at the National Bureau of Standards. [5] [8] [9] They presented their discovery at the 1946 Convention of the American Electroplaters' Society (AES); a year later, at the same conference they proposed the term "electroless" for the process and described optimized bath formulations, [10] that resulted in a patent. [10] [11] [12] However, Abner nor Riddell benefited financial from the filed patent. [13] The first commercial deposition was Leonhardt Plating Company in Cincinnati followed by the Kannigen Co. Ltd in Japan which revolutionized the industry. [7] [2] [1] The Leonhardt commercialization of electroless deposition was a catalyst for the design and patenting of several deposition baths including plating of metals such as Pt, Sn, Ag, and their alloys. [1] [5] [12]
The first mechanism for electroless deposition, atomic hydrogen mechanism, was proposed until Brenner and Riddell for a nickel deposition bath. [4] [2] This lead the way for other scientist to propose several other mechanisms. [7] The four examples of classical electroless deposition mechanism including: (1) Atomic hydrogen mechanism, (2) Hydride transfer mechanism, (3) Electrochemical mechanism, and (4) Metal hydroxide mechanism which will be discussed in the process section. [7] The four classical examples of electroless deposition are often linked to industrial processes. [7] Tollen's reaction deposits a uniform metallic silver layer via ED on glass which is referred to a silvering mirrors. [14] [15] This reaction is used to test for aldehydes as a basic solution of silver nitrate. [14] This reaction is often used as crude method used in chemistry demonstrations for the oxidation of an aldehyde to carboxylic acid, and the reduction of the silver cation into elemental silver. [14] Electroless deposition is an important process for industrial, and laboratory reactions in their quest to study the kinetics and test proposed mechanisms. [1] [2] [4]
Electroless deposition is an important process in the electronic industry for metallization of substrates. Other metallization of substrates also include physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and electroplating which produce thin metal films but require high temperature, vacuum, and a power source respectively. [16] This class is contrasted with electroplating processes, where the reduction is achieved by an externally generated electric current. [5] [4] Electroplating suffers from uneven current density due to the effect of substrate shape on the electrical resistance of the bath. [1] [17] These defects include loss of adhesion, contamination, and rigidity of the structure. [17]
Electroless deposition is advantageous in comparison to PVD, CVD, and electroplating deposition methods because it can be performed at ambient conditions. [1] [4] The plating method for Ni-P, Ni-Au, Ni-B, and Cu baths are distinct; however, the processes involve the same approach. The electroless deposition process is defined by four steps show in Fig.1 [1] [2] [18]
(1) Pretreatment or functionalization of the substrate cleans the surface of the substrate to remove any contaminants, determines the porosity of the elemental metal deposition, and the initiation site of the deposition.
(2) Sensitization is an activator ion that can reduce the active metal in the deposition bath.
(3) Activation accelerates the deposition of the active metal in the deposition bath.
(4) Electroless deposition is the process by which metal cation is reduced to elemental metal
The electroless deposition process is based on the principle of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred during a chemical reaction. The chemical bath thus has a cathodic and anodic reaction in this one-pot reaction. [2] The design of the deposition process includes carefully chosen reducing and oxidizing agents based on their standard redox potentials values. [2] These redox principles are dictated by the electroplating principles where a metal cations are reduced by an electric current at the cathode and a metal solid is oxidized at an anode. [19]
Metallization of a substrate requires a uniform solid coating on the intended surface instead of precipitation of the metal salt requires a catalyst that is either the substrate itself or is applied to it beforehand. [2] In fact, the reaction must be autocatalytic [1] , so that it can continue after the substrate has been coated by the metal. [4] The electroless deposition process is based on redox chemistry in which electrons are released from a reducing agent and a metal cation is reduced to elemental metal. [1] [2] Equations (1) and (2) shows the simplified ED process where a reducing agent releases electrons, and the metal cation is reduced respectively. [4]
Each component of the ED bath is complex because of the it needs a metal salt, reducing agent, stabilizers, complexing agents, pH variation, side product formation, bath lifetime, and plating rates. [1] [4] Stabilizers fine-tune the autocatalytic nature of the bath while controlling the heterogeneous deposition of nanoparticles. [1] [2] [4] Complexing agent s serve two purposes, prevention of precipitation of the metal cation, and act as buffers for bath stability. [2] [1] pH stability works in combination with complexing agents to prevent rapid decomposition of the ED bath. [7] [1] Side products of the a deposition bath can negatively affect the bath by poisoning the catalytic site, and disrupt the morphology of the metal nanoparticle. [1] [4] [7] Bath lifetime and plating rates are the products of all the components of the bath depending of all the previously mentioned parameter. [6]
The ED bath has a final component which is the reducing agent. Once a reducing agent is added to the metal salt solution nanoparticles of elemental metal or metal alloys are deposited on the substrate (e.g., glass, textiles, plastics etc.). [7] [20] As the nanoparticles of metals are deposited on the surface of the substrate. [2] The layers of nanoparticles acts as a catalyst for continual deposition of the metal which is defined as autocatalysis. [1] [4]
The electroless deposition and electroplating bath actively performs cathodic and anodic reactions at the surface of the substrate. [1] [2] The standard electrode potential of the metal and reducing agent are important as a driving force for electron exchange. [2] The standard potential is defined as the power of reduction of compounds. Examples are shown in Table 1., in which Zn with a lower standard potential (-0.7618 V) act as a reducing agent to copper (0.3419 V). [1] The calculated potentials for the reaction of the copper salt and zinc metal is ~0.4169 V meaning the reaction is spontaneous.
Since electroless deposition also uses the principles of standard electrode potentials we are also able to calculate potential, E, of metal ions in a solution governed by the Nernst equation (3). [1]
E is the potential of the reaction, E0 is the standard reduction potential of the redox reactio, and Q is the concentration of the poducts divided by the concentration of the reactants . [1] Metallizing
Standard potentials governs the ability for elemental metal deposition on a substrate, however ED is a not as simplistic as described in a metal exchange process. Electrons for ED are produced by powerful reducing agents in the deposition bath for example formaldehyde, sodium borohydride, glucose, sodium hypophosphite, hydrogen peroxide, and ascorbic acid. [1] [2] These reducing agents have negative standard potentials that drive the deposition process
The standard potential of the reducing agent and metal salt is not the only determinant of the redox reaction for electroless deposition. Conventional deposition of the copper nanoparticles uses formaldehyde as a reducing agent. [21] But the E0 of formaldehyde is pH dependent. At pH 0 of the deposition bath is E0 of formaldehyde is 0.056 V, but at pH=14 the E0=-1.070. [22] The formaldehyde (pH 14) is a more suitable reducing agent than at pH=0 because of the lower negative standard potential which makes it a powerful reducing agent. [18] Formaldehyde (pH 14) allows the solution to be buffered without rapid degradation of the bath. [18] [19]
Although industrial companies patented and commercialized ED baths the mechanism remained elusive. [1] [2] [4] The electroless plating bath are influenced by several factors including pH, binding ligand, and the potential etc. of the solution. [7] The deposition is buffered to ensure there isn't a rapid drop or increase in the pH during the deposition process. [1] [4] Binding ligands/complexing agents are used to increase the solubility of the metal salts while maintaining bath stability for slower release of the metal cations. [1] The potential of the bath is determined by the standard potentials of a powerful reducing agent and the metal cations. [4] All these factors along with others determine the overall deposition kinetics. [4] Mechanisms for Ni-P, Cu, Pt, and Pd etc. have been proposed for decades however, proposed mechanisms for ED of elemental metal have remained elusive. [4] The first mechanisms proposed focused on the formation of a Ni-P code position nanoparticles onto a substrate. These mechanisms were proposed based on their redox reactions which is highlighted in each subsection. Electroless nickel plating uses nickel salts as the metal cation source and either hypophosphite (H2PO2-) (or a borohydride-like compound) as the reducer. [4] A byproduct of the reaction is elemental phosphorus (or boron) which is incorporated in the coating. The classical deposition methods follows the following steps:
1) Diffusion of reactants (Ni2+ , H2PO2-) to the surface
2) Adsorption of reactants at the surface
3) Chemical reaction at the surface
4) Desorption of products (H2PO2-, H2, H+, H-) from the surface
5) Diffusion of the product from the surface or adhesion of the product onto the surface
Brenner and Riddle first proposed the atomic hydrogen mechanism for evolution of Ni and H2 from a Ni salt, reducing agent, complexing agent, and stabilizers. [1] [2] [4] They used a nickel chloride (NiCl2), sodium hypophosphite (NaH2PO2), commonly used complexing agents (e.g. citrate, EDTA, and tridentate), and stabilizers such as CTAB (cethyltrimethyl ammonium bromide). The redox reactions [4]-[6] proposes that adsorbed hydrogen (Had) reduces Ni2+ at the catalytic surface and has a secondary reaction where H2 gas evolves. [4] In 1946 it was discovered that a Ni-P alloy and hydrogen gas was formed instead due to a secondary reaction of hypophosphite with atomic hydrogen to form elemental phosphorus. However, the atomic hydrogen mechanism did not account for the co-deposition of Ni-P. [2] [5] [10] [4] The hydride transfer mechanism was proposed by Hersh in 1955 which accounted for the deposition of elemental phosphorus. [1] [4]
Hersh proposed the hydride transfer mechanism which was expanded in 1964 by R.M. Lukes to explain the deposition of elemental P. [2] [4] Hydride transfer in a basic environment was purported [7] to form the hydride (H-) which reduced the Ni2+ to Ni0[ 8], and combines with water to form H2 gas [9]. [4] Lukes reasoned that the hydride ion came from the hypophosphite and thus accounts for the Ni-P codeposition through a secondary reaction. [4]
Electrochemical Mechanism
The electrochemical mechanism was also proposed by Brenner and Riddell but was later modified by others including scientist Machu and El-Gendi. [4] They proposed that a electrolytic reaction occurred at the surface of the substrate, and H2 [11] and P [13] are by products of the Ni2+ ion reduction [10][11]. [2] [7] [4] The anodic reaction [10] has a reduction potential of 0.50 V. The cathodic reactions [11], [12], and [13] have reduction potentials of -0.25 , 0.00 V, and 0.50 V respectively. [4] The potential of the reaction is 1.25 V (spontaneous reaction). The electrochemical mechanism is the only classical mechanism that uses reduction potentials the other 3 classical mechanisms were tested in other ways including calorimetric studies. [4]
Proposed in 1968, solvated Ni ions at the catalytic surface ionized water and forms a hydroxide coordinated Ni ion. [23] The hydrolyzed Ni2+ ion catalyzes the production of Ni, P, and H2. Water is ionized at the Ni surface [14], and Ni2+ ions coordinate with hydroxide ions [15]. [4] The coordinated Ni2+ is reduced [16] and NiOH+ab is adsorbed on the substrate surface. [4] At the surface H2PO2- reduces NiOH+ab to elemental Ni0 [17]. [4] The released elemental H recombine to form hydrogen gas and [18] and elemental Ni catalyses the production of the P [19]. [4] The deposited Ni acts as a catatalyst due continued reduction by H2PO2- [17]. [4] Cavallotti and Salvago also proposed that the NiOH+ab [20] and water combination oxidises to Ni2+ and elemental H. [4] The NiOH+ab participates in a competing reaction [21a] (refers to reaction [17] )and [21b] to for elemental Ni and hydrolized Ni respectively. [4] Finally H2PO2- is oxidized [22] and elemental H [21a/21b] recombine to form and H2 evolves for both reactions [4] .The overall reactions is shown in equation [23]. [4]
Electroless deposition changes the mechanical, magnetic, internal stress, conductivity, and brightening of the substrate. [1] [2] [4] The first industrial application of electroless deposition by the Leonhardt Plating Company electroless deposition has flourished into metallization of plastics. [2] [24] [25] , textiles [26] , prevention of corrosion [27] , and jewelry. [2] The microelectronics industry including the manufacturing of circuit boards, semi-conductive devices, batteries, and sensors. [1] [2]
Typical metallization of plastics includes nickel-phosphorus, nickel gold, nickel-boron, palladium, copper, and silver. [24] Metallized plastics are used to reduce the weight of metal product and reduce the cost associated with the use of precious metals. [28] Electroless nickel plating is used in variety of industries including aviation, construction, textiles, and oil and gas industries. [23]
EMI shielding refers to the process by which devices are protected from interference from the electromagnetic radiation. [4] [29] The interference negatively affects the function of the devices; EMI sources include radiowaves, cell phones, and tv receiver. [4] [29] The Federal Aviation Administration and the Federal Communication Commission prohibits the use of cellphones after the airplane is airborne to avoid interference with navigation. [30] [31] Elemental Ni, Cu, and Ni/Cu absorb noise signals in the 14 Hz to 1 GHz range. [4]
Elemental nickel coating prevents corrosion of the steal tubulars used for drilling. [4] At the core of this industry nickel coats pressure vessels, compressor blades, reactors, turbine blades, and valves. [4]
Electroplating, also known as electrochemical deposition or electrodeposition, is a process for producing a metal coating on a solid substrate through the reduction of cations of that metal by means of a direct electric current. The part to be coated acts as the cathode of an electrolytic cell; the electrolyte is a solution of a salt of the metal to be coated; and the anode is usually either a block of that metal, or of some inert conductive material. The current is provided by an external power supply.
Redox is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state.
Chrome plating is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of chromium onto a metal object. A chrome-plated item is called chrome. The chromed layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, ease of cleaning, or increase surface hardness. Sometimes, a less expensive imitator of chrome may be used for aesthetic purposes.
Plating is a surface covering in which a metal is deposited on a conductive surface. Plating has been done for hundreds of years; it is also critical for modern technology. Plating is used to decorate objects, for corrosion inhibition, to improve solderability, to harden, to improve wearability, to reduce friction, to improve paint adhesion, to alter conductivity, to improve IR reflectivity, for radiation shielding, and for other purposes. Jewelry typically uses plating to give a silver or gold finish.
Copper electroplating is the process of electroplating a layer of copper onto the surface of a metal object. Copper is used both as a standalone coating and as an undercoat onto which other metals are subsequently plated. The copper layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, increase electrical and thermal conductivity, or improve the adhesion of additional deposits to the substrate.
Gold plating is a method of depositing a thin layer of gold onto the surface of another metal, most often copper or silver, by chemical or electrochemical plating. This article covers plating methods used in the modern electronics industry; for more traditional methods, often used for much larger objects, see gilding.
Metallizing is the general name for the technique of coating metal on the surface of objects. Metallic coatings may be decorative, protective or functional.
Hypophosphorous acid (HPA), or phosphinic acid, is a phosphorus oxyacid and a powerful reducing agent with molecular formula H3PO2. It is a colorless low-melting compound, which is soluble in water, dioxane and alcohols. The formula for this acid is generally written H3PO2, but a more descriptive presentation is HOP(O)H2, which highlights its monoprotic character. Salts derived from this acid are called hypophosphites.
Phosphinates or hypophosphites are a class of phosphorus compounds conceptually based on the structure of hypophosphorous acid. IUPAC prefers the term phosphinate in all cases, however in practice hypophosphite is usually used to describe inorganic species, while phosphinate typically refers to organophosphorus species.
The Mond process, sometimes known as the carbonyl process, is a technique created by Ludwig Mond in 1890, to extract and purify nickel. The process was used commercially before the end of the 19th century, and particularly by the International Nickel Company in the Sudbury Basin. This process converts nickel oxides into nickel metal with very high purity being attainable in just a single step.
LIGA is a fabrication technology used to create high-aspect-ratio microstructures. The term is a German acronym for Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung – lithography, electroplating, and molding.
Electroless nickel-phosphorus plating is a chemical process that deposits an even layer of nickel-phosphorus alloy on the surface of a solid substrate, like metal or plastic. The process involves dipping the substrate in a water solution containing nickel salt and a phosphorus-containing reducing agent, usually a hypophosphite salt. It is the most common version of electroless nickel plating and is often referred by that name. A similar process uses a borohydride reducing agent, yielding a nickel-boron coating instead.
Sodium hypophosphite (NaPO2H2, also known as sodium phosphinate) is the sodium salt of hypophosphorous acid and is often encountered as the monohydrate, NaPO2H2·H2O. It is a solid at room temperature, appearing as odorless white crystals. It is soluble in water, and easily absorbs moisture from the air.
Electrogalvanizing is a process in which a layer of zinc is bonded to steel in order to protect against corrosion. The process involves electroplating, running a current of electricity through a saline/zinc solution with a zinc anode and steel conductor. Such Zinc electroplating or Zinc alloy electroplating maintains a dominant position among other electroplating process options, based upon electroplated tonnage per annum. According to the International Zinc Association, more than 5 million tons are used yearly for both hot dip galvanizing and electroplating. The plating of zinc was developed at the beginning of the 20th century. At that time, the electrolyte was cyanide based. A significant innovation occurred in the 1960s, with the introduction of the first acid chloride based electrolyte. The 1980s saw a return to alkaline electrolytes, only this time, without the use of cyanide. The most commonly used electrogalvanized cold rolled steel is SECC, acronym of "Steel, Electrogalvanized, Cold-rolled, Commercial quality". Compared to hot dip galvanizing, electroplated zinc offers these significant advantages:
A molded interconnect device (MID) is an injection-molded thermoplastic part with integrated electronic circuit traces. The use of high temperature thermoplastics and their structured metallization opens a new dimension of circuit carrier design to the electronics industry. This technology combines plastic substrate/housing with circuitry into a single part by selective metallization.
Nickel electroplating is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of nickel onto a metal object. The nickel layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, wear resistance, or used to build up worn or undersized parts for salvage purposes.
Reactive bonding describes a wafer bonding procedure using highly reactive nanoscale multilayer systems as an intermediate layer between the bonding substrates. The multilayer system consists of two alternating different thin metallic films. The self-propagating exothermic reaction within the multilayer system contributes the local heat to bond the solder films. Based on the limited temperature the substrate material is exposed, temperature-sensitive components and materials with different CTEs, i.e. metals, polymers and ceramics, can be used without thermal damage.
Electroless nickel-boron coating is a metal plating process that can create a layer of a nickel-boron alloy on the surface of a solid substrate, like metal or plastic. The process involves dipping the substrate in a water solution containing nickel salt and a boron-containing reducing agent, such as an alkylamineborane or sodium borohydride. It is a type of electroless nickel plating. A similar process, that uses a hypophosphite as a reducing agent, yields a nickel-phosphorus coating instead.
Metal Assisted Chemical Etching is the process of wet chemical etching of semiconductors with the use of a metal catalyst, usually deposited on the surface of a semiconductor in the form of a thin film or nanoparticles. The semiconductor, covered with the metal is then immersed in an etching solution containing and oxidizing agent and hydrofluoric acid. The metal on the surface catalyzes the reduction of the oxidizing agent and therefore in turn also the dissolution of silicon. In the majority of the conducted research this phenomenon of increased dissolution rate is also spatially confined, such that it is increased in close proximity to a metal particle at the surface. Eventually this leads to the formation of straight pores that are etched into the semiconductor. This means that a pre-defined pattern of the metal on the surface can be directly transferred to a semiconductor substrate.
Electroless copper plating is a chemical process that deposits an even layer of copper on the surface of a solid substrate, like metal or plastic. The process involves dipping the substrate in a water solution containing copper salts and a reducing agent such as formaldehyde.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link){{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(help)