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Monoglottism or,more commonly,monolingualism or unilingualism,is the condition of being able to speak only a single language,as opposed to multilingualism. In a different context,"unilingualism" may refer to a language policy which enforces an official or national language over others.
Simultaneous bilingualism is a form of bilingualism that takes place when a child becomes bilingual by learning two languages from birth. According to Annick De Houwer,in an article in The Handbook of Child Language,simultaneous bilingualism takes place in "children who are regularly addressed in two spoken languages from before the age of two and who continue to be regularly addressed in those languages up until the final stages" of language development. Both languages are acquired as first languages. This is in contrast to sequential bilingualism,in which the second language is learned not as a native language but a foreign language.
Bilingualism,a subset of multilingualism,means having proficiency in two languages. A bilingual individual is traditionally defined as someone who understands and produces two languages on a regular basis. A bilingual individual's initial exposure to both languages may start in early childhood,e.g. before age 3,but exposure may also begin later in life,in monolingual or bilingual education. Equal proficiency in a bilingual individuals' languages is rarely seen as it typically varies by domain. For example,a bilingual individual may have greater proficiency for work-related terms in one language,and family-related terms in another language.
Information processing theory is the approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the American experimental tradition in psychology. Developmental psychologists who adopt the information processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational changes in basic components of a child's mind. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive,rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective uses an analogy to consider how the mind works like a computer. In this way,the mind functions like a biological computer responsible for analyzing information from the environment. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development,the mind's machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in,working memory for actively manipulating information,and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. This theory addresses how as children grow,their brains likewise mature,leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of development,in contrast with cognitive-developmental theorists such as Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development that thought development occurs in stages at a time.
In cognitive science and neuropsychology,executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that support goal-directed behavior,by regulating thoughts and actions through cognitive control,selecting and successfully monitoring actions that facilitate the attainment of chosen objectives. Executive functions include basic cognitive processes such as attentional control,cognitive inhibition,inhibitory control,working memory,and cognitive flexibility. Higher-order executive functions require the simultaneous use of multiple basic executive functions and include planning and fluid intelligence.
Cognitive reserve is the mind's and brain's resistance to damage of the brain. The mind's resilience is evaluated behaviorally,whereas the neuropathological damage is evaluated histologically,although damage may be estimated using blood-based markers and imaging methods. There are two models that can be used when exploring the concept of "reserve":brain reserve and cognitive reserve. These terms,albeit often used interchangeably in the literature,provide a useful way of discussing the models. Using a computer analogy,brain reserve can be seen as hardware and cognitive reserve as software. All these factors are currently believed to contribute to global reserve. Cognitive reserve is commonly used to refer to both brain and cognitive reserves in the literature.
Bimodal bilingualism is an individual or community's bilingual competency in at least one oral language and at least one sign language,which utilize two different modalities. An oral language consists of a vocal-aural modality versus a signed language which consists of a visual-spatial modality. A substantial number of bimodal bilinguals are children of deaf adults (CODA) or other hearing people who learn sign language for various reasons. Deaf people as a group have their own sign language(s) and culture that is referred to as Deaf,but invariably live within a larger hearing culture with its own oral language. Thus,"most deaf people are bilingual to some extent in [an oral] language in some form". In discussions of multilingualism in the United States,bimodal bilingualism and bimodal bilinguals have often not been mentioned or even considered. This is in part because American Sign Language,the predominant sign language used in the U.S.,only began to be acknowledged as a natural language in the 1960s. However,bimodal bilinguals share many of the same traits as traditional bilinguals,as well as differing in some interesting ways,due to the unique characteristics of the Deaf community. Bimodal bilinguals also experience similar neurological benefits as do unimodal bilinguals,with significantly increased grey matter in various brain areas and evidence of increased plasticity as well as neuroprotective advantages that can help slow or even prevent the onset of age-related cognitive diseases,such as Alzheimer's and dementia.
The critical period hypothesis is a theory within the field of linguistics and second language acquisition that claims a person can only achieve native-like fluency in a language before a certain age. It is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to developmental stages of the brain. The critical period hypothesis was first proposed by Montreal neurologist Wilder Penfield and co-author Lamar Roberts in their 1959 book Speech and Brain Mechanisms,and was popularized by Eric Lenneberg in 1967 with Biological Foundations of Language.
Developmental linguistics is the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual,particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. It involves research into the different stages in language acquisition,language retention,and language loss in both first and second languages,in addition to the area of bilingualism. Before infants can speak,the neural circuits in their brains are constantly being influenced by exposure to language. Developmental linguistics supports the idea that linguistic analysis is not timeless,as claimed in other approaches,but time-sensitive,and is not autonomous –social-communicative as well as bio-neurological aspects have to be taken into account in determining the causes of linguistic developments.
Alcohol-related dementia (ARD) is a form of dementia caused by long-term,excessive consumption of alcohol,resulting in neurological damage and impaired cognitive function.
Laura-Ann Petitto is a cognitive neuroscientist and a developmental cognitive neuroscientist known for her research and scientific discoveries involving the language capacity of chimpanzees,the biological bases of language in humans,especially early language acquisition,early reading,and bilingualism,bilingual reading,and the bilingual brain. Significant scientific discoveries include the existence of linguistic babbling on the hands of deaf babies and the equivalent neural processing of signed and spoken languages in the human brain. She is recognized for her contributions to the creation of the new scientific discipline,called educational neuroscience. Petitto chaired a new undergraduate department at Dartmouth College,called "Educational Neuroscience and Human Development" (2002-2007),and was a Co-Principal Investigator in the National Science Foundation and Dartmouth's Science of Learning Center,called the "Center for Cognitive and Educational Neuroscience" (2004-2007). At Gallaudet University (2011–present),Petitto led a team in the creation of the first PhD in Educational Neuroscience program in the United States. Petitto is the Co-Principal Investigator as well as Science Director of the National Science Foundation and Gallaudet University’s Science of Learning Center,called the "Visual Language and Visual Learning Center (VL2)". Petitto is also founder and Scientific Director of the Brain and Language Laboratory for Neuroimaging (“BL2”) at Gallaudet University.
Metalinguistic awareness,also known as metalinguistic ability,refers to the ability to consciously reflect on the nature of language and to use metalanguage to describe it. The concept of metalinguistic awareness is helpful in explaining the execution and transfer of linguistic knowledge across languages. Metalinguistics expresses itself in ways such as:
Neuroscience of multilingualism is the study of multilingualism within the field of neurology. These studies include the representation of different language systems in the brain,the effects of multilingualism on the brain's structural plasticity,aphasia in multilingual individuals,and bimodal bilinguals. Neurological studies of multilingualism are carried out with functional neuroimaging,electrophysiology,and through observation of people who have suffered brain damage.
Bilingual interactive activation plus (BIA+) is a model for understanding the process of bilingual language comprehension and consists of two interactive subsystems:the word identification subsystem and task/decision subsystem. It is the successor of the Bilingual Interactive Activation (BIA) model which was updated in 2002 to include phonologic and semantic lexical representations,revise the role of language nodes,and specify the purely bottom-up nature of bilingual language processing.
Attentional control,colloquially referred to as concentration,refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore. It is also known as endogenous attention or executive attention. In lay terms,attentional control can be described as an individual's ability to concentrate. Primarily mediated by the frontal areas of the brain including the anterior cingulate cortex,attentional control and attentional shifting are thought to be closely related to other executive functions such as working memory.
The mental lexicon is a component of the human language faculty that contains information regarding the composition of words,such as their meanings,pronunciations,and syntactic characteristics. The mental lexicon is used in linguistics and psycholinguistics to refer to individual speakers' lexical,or word,representations. However,there is some disagreement as to the utility of the mental lexicon as a scientific construct.
Bilingualism is the regular use of two fluent languages,and bilinguals are those individuals who need and use two languages in their everyday lives. A person's bilingual memories are heavily dependent on the person's fluency,the age the second language was acquired,and high language proficiency to both languages. High proficiency provides mental flexibility across all domains of thought and forces them to adopt strategies that accelerate cognitive development. People who are bilingual integrate and organize the information of two languages,which creates advantages in terms of many cognitive abilities,such as intelligence,creativity,analogical reasoning,classification skills,problem solving,learning strategies,and thinking flexibility.
Viorica Marian is a Moldovan-born American psycholinguist,cognitive scientist,and psychologist known for her research on bilingualism and multilingualism. She is the Ralph and Jean Sundin Endowed Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders,and professor of psychology at Northwestern University. Marian is the principal investigator of the Bilingualism and Psycholinguistics Research Group. She received her PhD in psychology from Cornell University,and master's degrees from Emory University and from Cornell University. Marian studies language,cognition,the brain,and the consequences of knowing more than one language for linguistic,cognitive,and neural architectures.
Language brokering,also known as child language brokering,refers to the informal act of translation by children and young people between a family member and a dominant language speaker,whereby children can influence both the message and its portrayal. Because their inter-family language differs from the predominant language in society,these children are or must become bilingual.
Karen Denise Emmorey is a linguist and cognitive neuroscientist known for her research on the neuroscience of sign language and what sign languages reveal about the brain and human languages more generally. Emmorey holds the position of Distinguished Professor in the School of Speech,Language,and Hearing Sciences at San Diego State University,where she directs the Laboratory for Language and Cognitive Neuroscience and the Center for Clinical and Cognitive Neuroscience.
References
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- ↑ "Faculty of Health". health.yorku.ca. Retrieved 2021-10-14.
- 1 2 Bialystok, Ellen; Raluca Barac (March–April 2012). "Bilingual Effects on Cognitive and Linguistic Development: Role of Language, Cultural Background, and Education". Child Development. 83 (2): 413–422. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01707.x. PMC 3305827 . PMID 22313034.
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- ↑ Bialystok, Ellen; Tom A. Schweizer; Jenna Ware; Corinne E. Fischer; Fergus I.M. Craik (December 2010). "Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: Evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer's disease". Cortex. 48 (8): 991–996. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009. PMID 21596373. S2CID 14647381.
- ↑ Martha Shade (23 October 2020). "Bilingualism is good medicine for the brain". CNN. Retrieved 2021-10-14.
- ↑ "Six emerging and established researchers newly appointed York Research Chairs". York University. 30 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-07-12.
- ↑ Globe and Mail Staff (June 30, 2016). "Canada's Honour Roll". Globe and Mail.
