Environmental impact of Gulf wars

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Disabled tank and burning oil field Disabled Iraqi T-54A, T-55, Type 59 or Type 69 tank and burning Kuwaiti oil field.jpg
Disabled tank and burning oil field

The 1991 Gulf War and the 2003 Iraq War brought about a significant negative impact on the environment. Indeed, Persian Gulf countries, especially Kuwait and Iraq, faced serious environmental disasters after the wars.

Contents

Environmental impacts, due to the war along with the deployment of chemical agents, involve harmful repercussions on both the natural environment and the health of the population of the whole region.

This article presents the effects of the Gulf War and Iraq War on the environment and nature, and the impacts on the population and specifically veterans' health.

Wars timeline

The effects

Environment

The environmental impact of the Gulf War of 1991 was unprecedented. Huge quantities of crude oil, going up to approximately 3.5 million tons, were released into the desert, while another 800,000 tons of oil spilled into the Persian Gulf. [2]  

Consequently, the burning oil wells created 250 oil lakes covering approximately 50 square kilometers in the desert due to the sixty million barrels of oil that came from the burning oil wells. [3]

As a result, between six and eight million barrels of oil are estimated to be at the core of marine environment pollution. [4]

By the February 27th ceasefire, the Saudi coast had suffered extensive damage over a distance of more than 100 miles. In this regard, oil, up to 15 inches deep in certain areas, devastated the nesting grounds of endangered sea turtles, birds, fisheries, and shrimp-spawning areas. [5] Beaches, tide pools, and seagrass beds had been damaged, and thousands of rare herons, flamingos, and other bird species were killed. [5]

Furthermore, the Sea Island Terminal oil spill on January 25, 1991, off the Saudi coast, was estimated to cover a stretch of approximately 10–15 miles during the Gulf War ceasefire. [6] The second major oil slick occurred off the Kuwaiti-Saudi coast, also originating from the Mina al Bakr offshore terminal of Iraq, with a length of about 10 miles. By February 26, 1991, more than 600 oil wells were burning, thereby forming a thick smoke that engulfed the region and resulted in a significant drop in the temperatures in Kuwait.

Moreover, the environmental repercussions extended over 1000 kilometres away to southern Turkey, where black acidic rain fell in March 1991. This rain was a result of carbon particles from the burning Kuwaiti oil fires, carried by winds and affecting countries like Iraq, Iran, and Syria.   In addition, Iran experienced water supply and crop irrigation issues due to the black rain, as well. [7]

The 1991 Gulf War entailed further environmental consequences, such as damage to sewage treatment plants in Kuwait, leading to the release of nearly 50,000 cubic meters of raw sewage into Kuwait Bay daily. [8]

Eventually, approximately 800 oil wells in Kuwait kept on burning in Kuwait for several months, leading to the release of pollutants such as nitrogen oxide, radium, hydrogen carbons, and hydrogen sulfide. [9]

The atmospheric pollution resulting from the oil fires had health implications for humans, as it led to an increase in oil-related heavy metals in the brain, including indicating nickel, vanadium, selenium, and cobalt in brain tumours, which can cause DNA damage and lipid peroxidation, as evidenced by airborne dust samples collected after the war. [10]

Health

The use of chemicals agents

During the Gulf Wars, the populations were exposed to chemical agents. Indeed, chemicals agent, for example Depleted Uranium (DU), was used for the first time during the first Gulf War in the tank kinetic energy penetrator or autocannon rounds.

After the Gulf Wars, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and various research organizations have been assessing potential causes of health issues among veterans, including exposure to chemical and biological weapons.

Nonetheless, the use of chemical agents by both the US Army and Iraqi forces remains to date a subject of debate. In 1997, the US government published a report that states that:

"The US Intelligence Community (IC) has assessed that Iraq did not use chemical weapons during the Gulf War. However, based on a comprehensive review of intelligence information and relevant information made available by the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), we conclude that chemical warfare (CW) agent was released as a result of the US postwar demolition of rockets with chemical warheads in a bunker (called Bunker 73 by Iraq) and a pit in an area known as Khamisiyah." [11]

For example, over 100,000 [12] Gulf War Veterans have been exposed to these nerve agents chemicals during the demolition of a munitions storage depot in Khamisiyah.

A study by the Boston School of Public Health has revealed a correlation between veterans deployed in Iraq and the reporting of post-war health symptoms. After their return from the Persian Gulf War, many veterans experienced health symptoms and medical problems. This report states that:

"Persian Gulf-deployed veterans were more likely to report neurological, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, cardiac, dermatological, musculoskeletal, psychological and neuropsychological system symptoms than German veterans." [13]

Gulf War Syndrome

The US Department of Veterans Affairs and the National Academy of Science (NAS) released multiple reports on the Gulf war illnesses, following the conclusion of the Gulf Wars.

According to a 2007 report on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) [14] Veterans in Iraq were exposed to various chemical agents including DU, pesticides, nerve gas sarin, and multiple vaccinations.

The report from Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) [15] established the link between neurological veterans' illnesses and the exposure neurotoxins.

The term "Gulf War illness" or "Gulf War syndrome" refers to the illness and neurological symptoms as "fatigue, muscle and joint pain, headaches, loss of memory and poor sleep" [16] experienced by veterans after the 1991 Gulf War. This syndrome was associated with different causes such as exposure to depleted uranium, sarin nerve agents, organophosphate pesticides, and to a lesser extent oil well fire, Anthrax vaccine and combat stress.

Cancer

In the decade following Gulf War I, veterans and Iraqi physicians reported a sharp increase in severe health problems, including cancer, which were attributed to the use of depleted uranium bullets by the United States. [17] Depleted uranium is known to be carcinogenic and has been associated with neurologic health problems. [18] [19]

As a consequence of weapons testing, military research, and the extensive use of approximately 1200 tonnes of munitions during the war, Iraq was left grappling with depleted uranium contamination, resulting in elevated levels in the soil. [19] Therefore, by 2012, the incidence of lung and breast cancer, Leukemia, and Lymphoma cases had doubled to tripled in many areas of Iraq. The presence of contaminated soil likely affected human health through the food chain, presenting long-term radiation hazards. [19]

Post-traumatic Stress disorder

In 1995, Kuwait witnessed a notable incidences of posttraumatic stress disorder. Approximately 27 percent of the population in Kuwait have this psychiatric disorder. 66 percent of those with diagnosable post-traumatic disorder were still dreaming nightmares about some war events. In addition, many boys were dreaming different dreams about Saddam trying to kill them or hurt their families. A documentary movie about affected families was made. A boy saw his father tortured and then killed by the Iraqi soldiers; after this, the boy lost the ability to speak. Another affected victim has speech problems because Iraqi soldiers forced her to watch her two sons killed.

Fertility Problems

Source: [20]

Some studies point out a link between fertility problems and the Gulf wars. US veterans from the Gulf Wars faced risks of infertility. [21] Indeed, research shows that deployed veterans during the Gulf wars faced issues concerning fertility, conceptions or live births, and pregnancy fathered problems [21]

In times of war, the fertility of the population is also affected. Researches show that the fertility trend in Iraq was in decline, and the war emphasize this trend. [22] Moreover, the use of chemicals weapons affected the population fertility. The case of Fallujah is an example of the impacts of the war on fertility. The city of Fallujah had been bombed during the war and chemical agents were used. Today, doctors and researchers found that there is an increase in congenital defects and infertility. [23] Many children were born with nervous system problems.

Cleanup

The Persian Gulf countries have a proven record of cooperating towards cleaning up the Gulf ruin and preventing future havoc.

For instance, over the years volunteer Kuwaiti divers have been cleaning the benthos. [24] They have extracted two cannons and seven shells. It was common to find a turtle caught in fishing nets. Saudi Aramco was one of the largest contributors to the cleaning process. It provided support to other Oil-response teams, distributing protection equipment and materials. Moreover, many Saudi Aramco employees were involved in volunteer teams to clean up marine life.

The Royal Commission in Jubail has established a new program to monitor oil spill or any other chemical materials. In addition, it studies the possibility of oil leakage and how it can be stopped in an emergency. Also, Aramco stores additional anti-pollution equipment and ships.

Furthermore, the Gulf Area cleaning endeavours persist nowadays and further extend to the international agenda and fall within the efforts to meet the 14th sustainable development goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda. [25]

Within a span of two months after the end of the 1990-1991 Gulf War, an unprecedented post-war mechanism called the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) was established, marking a significant development in the history of international armed conflicts. The primary objective of this mechanism was not only to assist neighbouring nations in recovering from the extensive personal and financial damages incurred during the war but also to facilitate the restoration of the environmental harm that had been inflicted. [26]

In fact, the Gulf Wars gave the impetus to foster public debate about further law-making in the international environmental field and filling the gaps of a legal regime considered unsatisfactory by the environmental community. [27]

In this perspective, after the conflict, it was expected that neighboring countries would receive reparations for the damages caused, and Iraq's oil revenues were seen as a viable source of funding. To address this, the UNCC was established with the objective of processing claims and providing compensation for losses and harm resulting from Iraq's illegal invasion and occupation of Kuwait. The 2.69 million claims that were processed were categorized based on the claimant and the type of compensation sought. [28]

Other than multiple aspects such as personal injuries, fatalities, financial losses suffered by individuals, expenses incurred by neighbouring countries for hosting refugees, as well as damage to businesses and government properties, environmental damage and depletion of natural resources also fell under the "F4" sub-category. [29]

Through various expert panels, evaluated 170 F4 claims originating from 12 countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the UK, and the USA) and awarded a total of US$5,261 million to 10 countries. This amount constituted only 6.2% of the total claims made and was paid out in five instalments over a span of five years. [30]

However, even though claims from the Netherlands and Turkey were unsuccessful and did not receive compensation, stringent oversight measures were implemented to ensure that the funds were utilized as specified, with regular reporting being conducted. To this date, all payments have now been concluded, although certain projects have taken more time than others to be finalized. [31]

Related Research Articles

Kuwait is a sovereign state in Western Asia located at the head of the Persian Gulf. The geographical region of Kuwait has been occupied by humans since antiquity, particularly due to its strategic location at the head of the Persian Gulf. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Kuwait was a prosperous maritime port city and the most important trade port in the northern Gulf region. In the modern era, Kuwait is best known for the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuwaiti oil fires</span> Oil wells burned by the Iraqi military during the Gulf War

The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to a reported 605 to 732 oil wells along with an unspecified number of oil filled low-lying areas, such as oil lakes and fire trenches, as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 due to the advances of US-led coalition forces in the Gulf War. The fires were started in January and February 1991, and the first oil well fires were extinguished in early April 1991, with the last well capped on November 6, 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Depleted uranium</span> Uranium with lower content of U-235

Depleted uranium is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope 235
U
 than natural uranium. Natural uranium contains about 0.72% 235
U
, while the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense contains 0.3% 235
U
 or less. The less radioactive and non-fissile 238
U
 constitutes the main component of depleted uranium.

Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), also known as idiopathic environmental intolerances (IEI), is an unrecognized and controversial diagnosis characterized by chronic symptoms attributed to exposure to low levels of commonly used chemicals. Symptoms are typically vague and non-specific. They may include fatigue, headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oil spill</span> Release of petroleum into the environment

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War</span> 1990–1991 conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition

The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States. The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield, which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm, which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led Liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War oil spill</span>

The Gulf War oil spill, or the Persian Gulf oil spill, was one of the largest oil spills in history, resulting from the Gulf War in 1991. In January 1991, Iraqi forces allegedly began dumping oil into the Persian Gulf to stop a U.S. coalition-led water landing on their shores. Despite quite high initial estimates, the spill likely was about 4,000,000 US barrels. Within the following months of the spill, most clean-up was targeted at recovering oil, and very little clean-up was done on Saudi Arabia’s highly-affected beaches. An initial study in 1993 found that the spill will not have long-term environmental consequences, but many studies since 1991 have concluded the opposite, claiming that the spill is responsible for environmental damage to coastline sediments and marine species and ecosystems. Considered an act of environmental terrorism, the spill was a heated political move that had implications for the larger Gulf War and temporarily damaged Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iraqi invasion of Kuwait</span> Beginning of the 1990–1991 Gulf War

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait began on 2 August 1990 and marked the beginning of the Gulf War. After defeating the State of Kuwait on 4 August 1990, Iraq went on to militarily occupy the country for the next seven months. The invasion was condemned internationally, and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) adopted numerous resolutions urging Iraq to withdraw from Kuwaiti territory. The Iraqi military, however, continued to occupy Kuwait and defied all orders by the UNSC. After initially establishing the "Republic of Kuwait" as a puppet state, Iraq annexed the entire country on 28 August 1990; northern Kuwait became the Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District and was merged into the existing Basra Governorate, while southern Kuwait was carved out as the all-new Kuwait Governorate. By November 1990, the adoption of UNSC Resolution 678 officially issued Iraq an ultimatum to withdraw unconditionally by 15 January 1991 or else be removed by "all necessary means" from Kuwaiti territory. In anticipation of a war with Iraq, the UNSC authorized the assembly of an American-led military coalition.

The United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) was created in 1991 as a subsidiary organ of the United Nations Security Council. Its mandate is to process claims and pay compensation for losses and damage suffered as a direct result of Iraq's 1990–1991 invasion and occupation of Kuwait which started the Gulf War. These losses included claims for loss of property, deaths, loss of natural resources, damage to public health and environmental damage.

Malcolm Hooper is a British pharmacist and emeritus professor of medicinal chemistry at the University of Sunderland. He is best known for his advocacy related to Gulf War syndrome.

The aftermath of Gulf War saw drastic and profoundly significant political, cultural, and social change across the Middle East and even in areas outside those that were directly involved.

Uranium in the environment is a global health concern, and comes from both natural and man-made sources. Mining, phosphates in agriculture, weapons manufacturing, and nuclear power are sources of uranium in the environment.

Khamisiyah is an area in southern Iraq located approximately 350 km south-east of Baghdad, 200 km north-west of Kuwait City and 270 km north of Al Qaysumah. Khamisiyah is under the administration of the province of Dhi Qar. The area contains a few small towns, including Khamisiyah and Sahalat, with an estimated population of 8,500.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Basra (2003)</span>

The Battle of Basra lasted from 21 March to 6 April 2003 and was one of the first battles of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The British 7 Armoured Brigade fought their way into Iraq's second-largest city, Basra, on 6 April coming under constant attack by the Iraqi Army 51st Division and Fedayeen, while elements of the Parachute Regiment cleared the 'old quarter' of the city that was inaccessible to vehicles. Entering Basra had only been achieved after two weeks of conflict, which included the biggest tank battle of the war by British forces when the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards destroyed 14 Iraqi tanks on the 27 March.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christopher Busby</span> British scientist

Christopher Busby is a British scientist primarily studying the health effects of internal ionising radiation. Busby is a director of Green Audit Limited, a private company, and scientific advisor to the Low Level Radiation Campaign (LLRC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of war</span> Environmental problems caused by warfare

Study of the environmental impact of war focuses on the modernization of warfare and its increasing effects on the environment. Scorched earth methods have been used for much of recorded history. However, the methods of modern warfare cause far greater devastation on the environment. The progression of warfare from chemical weapons to nuclear weapons has increasingly created stress on ecosystems and the environment. Specific examples of the environmental impact of war include World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Rwandan Civil War, the Kosovo War and the Gulf War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War syndrome</span> Chronic disorder related to the Gulf War

The Gulf War syndrome (GWS) is a chronic and multi-symptomatic disorder affecting military veterans of both sides of the Gulf War (1990–1991). A wide range of acute and chronic symptoms have been linked to it, including fatigue, muscle pain, cognitive problems, insomnia, rashes and diarrhea. Approximately 250,000 of the 697,000 U.S. veterans who served in the Gulf War have enduring chronic multi-symptom illness, a condition with serious consequences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burn pit</span> Waste disposal method

A burn pit is an area of a United States military base in which waste is disposed of by burning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War Health Research Reform Act of 2014</span> US law

The Gulf War Health Research Reform Act of 2014 is a bill that would have altered the relationship between the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) and the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), the federal agency under which the RAC is constituted. The bill would have made the RAC an independent organization within the VA, required that a majority of the RAC's members be appointed by Congress instead of the VA, and authorized the RAC to release its reports without needing prior approval from the VA Secretary. The RAC is responsible for investigating Gulf War Illness, a chronic multi-symptom disorder affecting returning military veterans of the 1990-91 Gulf War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Kuwait</span>

Located in the Middle East, Kuwait is a relatively small country that has been the center of many political and economic issues over the past few decades. Stemming from these tensions, Kuwait as well as other countries in the region, including Iran, Iraq, and Qatar face threats from environmental issues. A loss of agriculture due to climate change, pollution from the country's oil industry and Oil Fires of 1991 as well as damages to agriculture and biodiversity are just some of the common environmental issues. The Kuwaiti government has worked to mitigate and adapt to these issues through policy and the creation of agencies to research, educated and inform about environmental problems, their sources, and their effects.

References

  1. ↑ "Persian Gulf Wars". The Columbia Encyclopedia.
  2. ↑ Sand, Peter H. (2011). "Catastrophic Environmental Damage and the Gulf War Reparation Awards: The Experience of the UN Compensation Commission" . Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting. 105: 430–433. doi:10.5305/procannmeetasil.105.0430. ISSN   0272-5037. S2CID   156362940.
  3. ↑ HEGAZY, AHMAD K. (1997). "International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996". Environmental Conservation. 24 (1): 83–84. ISSN   0376-8929. JSTOR   44519245.
  4. ↑ HEGAZY, AHMAD K. (1997). "International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996". Environmental Conservation. 24 (1): 83–84. ISSN   0376-8929. JSTOR   44519245.
  5. 1 2 Sand, Peter H. (2011). "Catastrophic Environmental Damage and the Gulf War Reparation Awards: The Experience of the UN Compensation Commission" . Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting. 105: 430–433. doi:10.5305/procannmeetasil.105.0430. ISSN   0272-5037. S2CID   156362940.
  6. ↑ https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S0020860400071151a.pdf
  7. ↑ Glassman, Laura; Walsh, Jacquelyn (1991). "War in the Gulf: Post Mortem of an Environmental Tragedy: Oil Spills and Oil Fires". Earth Island Journal. 6 (2): 43–45. ISSN   1041-0406. JSTOR   43882945.
  8. ↑ "The environmental damage of war in Iraq". The Guardian. 19 January 2003.
  9. ↑ HEGAZY, AHMAD K. (1997). "International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996". Environmental Conservation. 24 (1): 83–84. ISSN   0376-8929. JSTOR   44519245.
  10. ↑ HEGAZY, AHMAD K. (1997). "International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996". Environmental Conservation. 24 (1): 83–84. ISSN   0376-8929. JSTOR   44519245.
  11. ↑ Golomb, Beatrice Alexandra (2008-03-18). "Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and Gulf War illnesses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (11): 4295–4300. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.4295G. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0711986105 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   2393741 . PMID   18332428.
  12. ↑ Administration, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health. "Chemical & Biological Weapons during Gulf War - Public Health". www.publichealth.va.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-09.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Proctor, S. P.; Heeren, T.; White, R. F.; Wolfe, J.; Borgos, M. S.; Davis, J. D.; Pepper, L.; Clapp, R.; Sutker, P. B.; Vasterling, J. J.; Ozonoff, D. (December 1998). "Health status of Persian Gulf War veterans: self-reported symptoms, environmental exposures and the effect of stress". International Journal of Epidemiology. 27 (6): 1000–1010. doi: 10.1093/ije/27.6.1000 . ISSN   0300-5771. PMID   10024195.
  14. ↑ "Committee on Veterans Affairs: Hearings". 2013-02-27. Archived from the original on 2013-02-27. Retrieved 2022-04-15.
  15. ↑ "Scientific Progress in Understanding Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses: Report and Recommendations" (PDF). United States Department of Veterans Affairs. September 2004. Archived (PDF)from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  16. ↑ Gronseth, Gary S. (2005-05-01). "Gulf War Syndrome: A Toxic Exposure? A Systematic Review". Neurologic Clinics. Toxic and Environmental Neurology. 23 (2): 523–540. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2004.12.011. ISSN   0733-8619. PMID   15757795.
  17. ↑ Peterson, Scott (1999). "The Gulf War Battlefield Still "Hot" with Depleted Uranium". Middle East Report (211): 2–5. doi:10.2307/3013322. ISSN   0899-2851. JSTOR   3013322.
  18. ↑ Shaki, Fatemeh; Zamani, Ehsan; Arjmand, Abdollah; Pourahmad, Jalal (December 2019). "A Review on Toxicodynamics of Depleted Uranium". Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 18 (Special Issue): 90–100. doi:10.22037/ijpr.2020.113045.14085. PMC   7393059 . PMID   32802091.
  19. 1 2 3 Fathi, Riyad Abdullah; Matti, Lilyan Yaqup; Al-Salih, Hana Said; Godbold, Douglas (2013). "Environmental pollution by depleted uranium in Iraq with special reference to Mosul and possible effects on cancer and birth defect rates" . Medicine, Conflict and Survival. 29 (1): 7–25. doi:10.1080/13623699.2013.765173. ISSN   1362-3699. JSTOR   27018298. PMID   23729095. S2CID   45404607.
  20. ↑ "Pooky's five steps to sustainable lighting". Pooky Lighting. Retrieved 2022-06-22.
  21. 1 2 Group, British Medical Journal Publishing (2004-07-22). "Gulf war veterans have fertility problems". BMJ. 329 (7459): 0–a. doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7459.0-a. ISSN   0959-8138. S2CID   220089580.
  22. ↑ Cetorelli, Valeria (December 2014). "The Effect on Fertility of the 2003-2011 War in Iraq". Population and Development Review. 40 (4): 581–604. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2014.00001.x. PMC   4539598 . PMID   26300572.
  23. ↑ Jamail, Dahr. "Fallujah: New kind of siege". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2022-05-09.
  24. ↑ "Kuwait Diving Team continues cooperation with UN bureau to maintain clean sea". KUNA. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  25. ↑ "Cleaning the coast of the Persian Gulf". Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  26. ↑ Payne, Cymie, and Peter Sand (eds), Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission: Environmental Liability (New York, 2011; online edn, Oxford Academic, 20 Apr. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199732203.001.0001, accessed 25 May 2023.
  27. ↑ https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/irrc-879-bothe-bruch-diamond-jensen.pdf
  28. ↑ "PRESS RELEASE UNITED NATIONS COMPENSATION COMMISSION PAYS OUT US$270 MILLION" (PDF). United Nations Compensation Commission. 23 July 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  29. ↑ https://uncc.ch/claims
  30. ↑ file:///Users/letiziaferhati/Downloads/_book_edcoll_9789047421917_Bej.9789004161566.i-1188_011-preview.pdf
  31. ↑ https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/02/1111632#:~:text=The%20UNCC%E2%80%99s%20Governing%20Council%20convened%20a%20special%20session,occupation%20of%20Kuwait%2C%20under%20former%20dictator%20Saddam%20Hussein.
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