Environmental issues in Somalia

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Somalia continues to suffer from many environmental issues like land degradation and overfishing. Land degradation caused by overgrazing, soil erosion, loss of topsoil, and loss of vegetation due to the cutting of trees continues to effect Somalia's socio-political climate. Additionally, overfishing caused by a lack of government surveillance and foreign exploitation of Somali waters encourages piracy and terrorist activities along with exacerbating natural habitat destruction and climate change.

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Land degradation and deforestation

Land degradation in Somalia is becoming an increasingly important issue as approximately one-third of Somalia's arable land has degraded and lost its fertility. [1] Land degradation in Somalia comes in a few major forms including soil erosion, loss of topsoil, the loss of vegetation due to overgrazing, and loss of vegetation due to the cutting of trees for the production of charcoal or for the use as construction materials. [2] Soils are particularly prone to erosion in the East African Savanna as they are predominantly sands, sandy loams or black cracking clays that have a weak structural stability. [3] Land degradation is a significant contributor to the decline of agricultural production. Additionally, the overuse and exploitation of the ecosystem in a quest to increase agricultural production leads to unintended land degradation. [4] Agronomic practices such as the burning of animal manure and a general lack of soil and water conservation are major causes of the poor agricultural productivity of Somalia. [5] Research has shown that as land degradation continues to worsen, rural poverty increases, which in turn causes social conflict and rural migration to urban centers. [1] Between 1890 and 1960, the colonial governments in Somalia introduced legislation that marked some parts of northwest Somalia for crop cultivation. The colonial governments later altered the land ownership rights in these areas from communal to individual ownership. [6] This legislation was enacted to increase food production, however, it later triggered land degradation in the area, because it was not supported with the necessary agricultural extension services. Following the colonial period, successive governments did not properly enforce colonial legislation leading to communities gradually beginning crop production on their own. By the mid-1980s, evidence of land degradation (e.g. loss of vegetation and topsoil loss) started emerging because of poor cropland management and agricultural extensification. [7]

Another cause of land degradation in Somalia is socio-political upheaval. [4] It has caused instability in the central government and a subsequent loss of focus in policy formulation and implementation with regard to land degradation. The upheaval and subsequent conflicts have contributed to the destruction of previously built soil and water conservation structures. The damaged structures were physically destroyed by either war or abandonment. Consequently, they no longer control land degradation and can contribute to downstream gully erosion in some locations. [8]

Charcoal trade

The charcoal trade in Somalia is another factor that has contributed to land degradation in Somalia. [6] [9] It is traditionally one of Somalia's main economic activities. Before 1990, and the onset of the civil war, the charcoal trade was regulated by the central government through acts of parliament and via co-operative societies. However, this government control on charcoal manufacturing and consumption ceased with the collapse of the central government in the 1990s. Many tree species in the country have been lost due to the charcoal trade.

Overfishing

Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa and a wealth of marine resources. [10] However, weak governance, lack of infrastructure and illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing by foreign countries have impeded Somali efforts to take full advantage of the economic potential of these resources. Furthermore, these causes have exacerbated overfishing and destruction of marine habitats. [11] In Somalia and Tanzania, illegal trawlers “deploy giant, non-selective nets, wiping out entire schools of tuna, including the young ones, which they discard dead, ruining the marine ecosystem and contributing to climate change. [12] Overfishing can have a range of impacts on the environment upsetting the delicate balance of marine food webs, ruining local economies, and leading ultimately to climate change as our oceans warm. [13]

Overfishing, particularly by foreign vessels, was uncommon off the coast of East Africa and was very low on the international community's radar when the government of Somalia collapsed in the 1990s. [14] The unique combination of rich fishing opportunities and a complete inability of the government to police its waters drew fleets from many countries, causing even further instability in the region. [15] The greatest harm was done by European and Asian vessels that plundered the fisheries off Somalia's coast. After Somalia's fish populations were depleted, the international ships moved on. However, as a result of foreign overfishing, local economies along the coast collapsed, and many communities experienced joblessness and hunger. This led to individuals in the area deciding to exploit the minimal assets at their disposal and transform small fishing boats into pirate vessels. The beginning of marine piracy in the Somalia is dated to the early 90s when fishing communities off the coast of Puntland started to organize patrols to prevent and deter illegal fishing and the discharge of toxic wastes. [16] The increase in piracy by fishermen who now lack their main source of sustenance due to illegal foreign overfishing has been mirrored by Al-Shabaab terrorist activity and profits from piracy have been used to fund terrorist activities. [10] Though overfishing is not the sole cause of the increase in Somali piracy, it is undeniable that the pillaging of local fish populations, largely by foreign vessels, played a key role. [17] Piracy in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean off the Somali Coast reached unprecedented levels in 2008, with the number of attacks increasing 152 percent from 2007. Somali pirates hijacked 42 vessels in 2008, taking 815 hostages. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Desertification</span> Process by which fertile areas of land become increasingly arid

Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by a variety of factors, such as overexploitation of soil as a result of human activity and the effects of climate change. Geographic areas most affected include the Sahel region in Africa, the Gobi Desert and Mongolia in Asia as well as parts of South America. Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Overgrazing</span> When plants are grazed for extended periods without sufficient recovery time

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature reserves. It can also be caused by immobile, travel restricted populations of native or non-native wild animals.

Soil retrogression and degradation are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil. Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to its natural physical state. Degradation is an evolution, different from natural evolution, related to the local climate and vegetation. It is due to the replacement of primary plant communities by the secondary communities. This replacement modifies the humus composition and amount, and affects the formation of the soil. It is directly related to human activity. Soil degradation may also be viewed as any change or ecological disturbance to the soil perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fishery</span> Raising or harvesting fish

Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place. Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in freshwater waterbodies and the oceans. About 500 million people worldwide are economically dependent on fisheries. 171 million tonnes of fish were produced in 2016, but overfishing is an increasing problem, causing declines in some populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Overfishing</span> Removal of a species of fish from water at a rate that the species cannot replenish

Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally, resulting in the species becoming increasingly underpopulated in that area. Overfishing can occur in water bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, wetlands, rivers, lakes or oceans, and can result in resource depletion, reduced biological growth rates and low biomass levels. Sustained overfishing can lead to critical depensation, where the fish population is no longer able to sustain itself. Some forms of overfishing, such as the overfishing of sharks, has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems. Types of overfishing include: growth overfishing, recruitment overfishing, ecosystem overfishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental degradation</span> Any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grazing</span> Feeding livestock on forage

In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to roam around and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products, often on land that is unsuitable for arable farming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Land degradation</span> Gradual destruction of land

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine ecosystem</span> Ecosystem in saltwater environment

Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of fishing</span>

The environmental impact of fishing includes issues such as the availability of fish, overfishing, fisheries, and fisheries management; as well as the impact of industrial fishing on other elements of the environment, such as bycatch. These issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. According to a 2019 FAO report, global production of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic animals has continued to grow and reached 172.6 million tonnes in 2017, with an increase of 4.1 percent compared with 2016. There is a growing gap between the supply of fish and demand, due in part to world population growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</span>

Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is an environmental conflict of international importance. Most of the deforestation takes place in the Congo Basin, which has the second largest rainforest in the world after the Amazon. Roughly half the remaining rainforest in the Congo Basin is in the DRC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil compaction (agriculture)</span> Decrease in porosity of soil due to agriculture

Soil compaction, also known as soil structure degradation, is the increase of bulk density or decrease in porosity of soil due to externally or internally applied loads. Compaction can adversely affect nearly all physical, chemical and biological properties and functions of soil. Together with soil erosion, it is regarded as the "costliest and most serious environmental problem caused by conventional agriculture."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil regeneration</span>

Soil regeneration, as a particular form of ecological regeneration within the field of restoration ecology, is creating new soil and rejuvenating soil health by: minimizing the loss of topsoil, retaining more carbon than is depleted, boosting biodiversity, and maintaining proper water and nutrient cycling. This has many benefits, such as: soil sequestration of carbon in response to a growing threat of climate change, a reduced risk of soil erosion, and increased overall soil resilience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Sri Lanka</span>

Environmental issues in Sri Lanka include large-scale logging of forests and degradation of mangroves, coral reefs and soil. Air pollution and water pollution are challenges for Sri Lanka since both cause negative health impacts. Overfishing and insufficient waste management, especially in rural areas, leads to environmental pollution. Sri Lanka is also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as extreme weather events and sea level rise.

Senegal's environmental issues are varied. According to the CIA world factbook pressing problems exist with: diminishing wildlife populations which are threatened by poaching, deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, desertification, and overfishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Nigeria</span> Emissions, impacts and response of Nigeria related to climate change

Climate change in Nigeria is evident from temperature increase, rainfall variability. It is also reflected in drought, desertification, rising sea levels, erosion, floods, thunderstorms, bush fires, landslides, land degradation, more frequent, extreme weather conditions and loss of biodiversity. All of which continues to negatively affect human and animal life and also the ecosystems in Nigeria. Although, depending on the location, regions experience climate change with significant higher temperatures during the dry seasons while rainfalls during rainy seasons help keep the temperature at milder levels. The effects of climate change prompted the World Meteorological Organization, in its 40th Executive Council 1988, to establish a new international scientific assessment panel to be called the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The 2007 IPCC's fourth and final Assessment Report (AR4) revealed that there is a considerable threat of climate change that requires urgent global attention. The report further attributed the present global warming to largely anthropogenic practices. The Earth is almost at a point of no return as it faces environmental threats which include atmospheric and marine pollution, global warming, ozone depletion, the dangers of pollution by nuclear and other hazardous substances, and the extinction of various wildlife species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of deforestation on soil erosion in Nigeria</span> Effects of deforestation on soil erosion

Deforestation in Nigeria can be said to be the process of cutting down trees or clearing forests for either agricultural, commercial, residential, or industrial purposes. In Nigeria, it has become an increasingly important environmental concern as it has adverse effects on the ecosystem, including soil erosion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Desertification in Africa</span> Causes and effects of land degradation

Desertification in Africa is a form of land degradation that involves the conversion of productive land into desert or arid areas. This issue is a pressing environmental concern that poses a significant threat to the livelihoods of millions of people in Africa who depend on the land for subsistence. Geographical and environmental studies have recently coined the term desertification. Desertification is the process by which a piece of land becomes a desert, as the word desert implies. The loss or destruction of the biological potential of the land is referred to as desertification. It reduces or eliminates the potential for plant and animal production on the land and is a component of the widespread ecosystem degradation. Additionally, the term desertification is specifically used to describe the deterioration of the world's drylands, or its arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid climates. These regions may be far from the so-called natural or climatic deserts, but they still experience irregular water stress due to their low and variable rainfall. They are especially susceptible to damage from excessive human land use pressure. The causes of desertification are a combination of natural and human factors, with climate change exacerbating the problem. Despite this, there is a common misconception that desertification in Africa is solely the result of natural causes like climate change and soil erosion. In reality, human activities like deforestation, overgrazing, and unsustainable agricultural practices contribute significantly to the issue. Another misconception is that, desertification is irreversible, and that degraded land will forever remain barren wastelands. However, it is possible to restore degraded land through sustainable land management practices like reforestation and soil conservation. A 10.3 million km2 area, or 34.2% of the continent's surface, is at risk of desertification. If the deserts are taken into account, the affected and potentially affected area is roughly 16.5 million km2 or 54.6% of all of Africa. 5.7 percent of the continent's surface is made up of very severe regions, 16.2 percent by severe regions, and 12.3 percent by moderate to mild regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firewood in Nigeria</span> Deforestation and use of fuel wood in Nigeria

In Nigeria, firewood is a traditional source of energy for domestic and commercial use. Fuel wood is derived from cutting and burning wood materials such as logs and twigs. It has long been prevalent among rural and sometimes urban dwellers.

References

  1. 1 2 Mohamed, Abdinur Ali; Nageye, Ahmed Ibrahim (3 November 2020). "Measuring the effect of land degradation and environmental changes on agricultural production in Somalia with two structural breaks". Management of Environmental Quality. 32 (2): 160–174. doi:10.1108/meq-02-2020-0032. S2CID   228844971.
  2. ↑ Rebuilding resilient and sustainable agriculture in Somali (PDF). FAO. 2009.
  3. ↑ Mati, B (July 2001). "Application of the USLE in a Savannah Environment: Comparative Experiences from East and West Africa". Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography. 22 (2): 139–155. doi:10.1111/1467-9493.00099 – via Wiley Online Library Database.
  4. 1 2 Omuto, C. T.; Balint, Z.; Alim, M. S. (March 2014). "A framework for national assessment of land degradation in the drylands: a case study of Somalia". Land Degradation & Development. 25 (2): 105–119. doi:10.1002/ldr.1151. S2CID   52105296.
  5. ↑ Mace, Ruth (January 1991). "Overgrazing overstated". Nature. 349 (6307): 280–281. Bibcode:1991Natur.349..280M. doi: 10.1038/349280d0 . S2CID   43777462.
  6. 1 2 Samatar, Abdi Ismail (1989). The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884-1986. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN   978-0-299-11994-2.[ page needed ]
  7. ↑ Omuto, C. T.; Vargas, R. R. (January 2009). "Combining pedometrics, remote sensing and field observations for assessing soil loss in challenging drylands: A case study of Northwestern Somalia". Land Degradation & Development. 20 (1): 101–115. doi:10.1002/ldr.870. S2CID   128625681.
  8. ↑ Omuto, CT, et al. Land Degradation Assessment and a Monitoring Framework in Somalia. 2009.
  9. ↑ Oduori, SM, and RR Vargas. Land Use Characterization of a Selected Study Area in Somaliland. 2007.
  10. 1 2 Farquhar, Samantha D (2017). "When overfishing leads to terrorism: The case of Somalia". World Affairs. 21 (2): 68–77. JSTOR   48531463.
  11. ↑ Link, Jason S.; Watson, Reg A.; Pranovi, Fabio; Libralato, Simone (December 2020). "Comparative production of fisheries yields and ecosystem overfishing in African Large Marine Ecosystems". Environmental Development. 36: 100529. doi:10.1016/j.envdev.2020.100529. S2CID   218794828.
  12. ↑ "Overfishing destroying livelihoods". Africa Renewal. 2017-05-12. Retrieved 2022-03-25.
  13. ↑ Ikechi-Uko, Nimechi (2020-09-11). "The impact of overfishing on the economy, ecosystem and social life". South Florida Media Network. Retrieved 2022-03-25.
  14. ↑ Beebe, Shannon (11 March 2011). "Ripple effect". Los Angeles Times. ProQuest   856379551.
  15. ↑ Russell, Denise (2015). Who Rules the Waves?: Piracy, Overfishing and Mining the Oceans. London: Pluto Press. p. 212. ISBN   978-0-7453-3004-4.
  16. ↑ Gornowicz, Michal (2013). "Marine Piracy In Somalia – Past, Present And Future" (PDF). Perspectives of Law and Public Administration. 2 (1): 101–104.
  17. ↑ Sumaila, U. Rashid; Bawumia, Mahamudu (September 2014). "Fisheries, ecosystem justice and piracy: A case study of Somalia". Fisheries Research. 157: 154–163. doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2014.04.009.
  18. ↑ International Maritime Bureau, 2009 International Maritime Bureau Piracy and armed robbery against ships Special Report, 2009, International Maritime Bureau, London, United Kingdom (2009)
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