Epidemiology of bed bugs

Last updated

Bed bugs occur around the world. [1] Rates of infestations in developed countries, while decreasing from the 1930s to the 1980s, have risen dramatically since the 1980s. [1] [2] [3] Previous to this, they were common in the developing world but rare elsewhere. [3] The increase in the developed world may have been caused by the growth of international travel, resistance to insecticides, and the use of new pest control methods that do not affect bed bugs. [4] [5]

Contents

The fall in bed bug populations after the 1930s in the developed world is believed to be partly due to the usage of DDT to kill household pests such as cockroaches. [6] The invention of the vacuum cleaner and simplification of furniture design may have also played a role. [6] Others believe it might simply be the cyclical nature of the organism. [7]

Worldwide

Bed bugs are increasing in Europe, the US, Canada and Australia. The infestations have been occurring in a wide range of facilities in the developed world in recent years including: hotels (from backpacker to five star), overnight trains, private homes, cruise ships, schools, hospitals and homeless shelters. [1] [6] These infestations are occasionally of both types of bed bugs (common and tropical). [1] The increased rates of infestations have been matched by increased media coverage. [8] Pest management companies have also seen an increase in calls regarding bed bugs during the 2000s. [9]

United Kingdom

Figures from one London borough show reported bed bug infestations doubling each year from 1995 to 2001. There is also evidence of a previous cycle of bed bug infestations in the U.K. in the mid-1980s. [10] In 2010 the increase of infestation in UK was estimated to be around 24%. [11] [ unreliable source? ] In the hot summer of 2018 it was reported that bedbug infestations had been increasing year-on-year in UK cities since 2006, with no sign of levelling off. This was considered likely to be due to increased temperatures. Bedbugs were commonly found in seats on London buses and Tube trains. [12]

United States

Bed bugs have been reported in all 50 states. [1] The U.S. National Pest Management Association reported a 71% increase in bed bug calls between 2000 and 2005. [13] The Steritech Group, a pest-management company based in Charlotte, North Carolina, claimed that 25% of the 700 hotels they surveyed between 2002 and 2006 needed bed bug treatment. The resurgence led the United States Environmental Protection Agency to hold a National Bed Bug Summit in 2009. [14]

Numbers of reported incidents in New York City rose from 500 in 2004 to 10,000 in 2009 mostly in Brooklyn area. [15] [16] In August 2010, bed bugs were found in the Elle Fashion Hachette building in New York City. After suspected infestation, a beagle trained in sniffing bed bugs was used to confirm their presence. Office workers were told to work from home while the building was being treated. Although largely thought to only cause problems in less maintained and dirty environments, there is an increasing incidence of bed bugs for infesting indoor environments of high maintenance standards. [17] [18]

One recent theory about bed bug reappearance is that they never truly disappeared from the United States, but may have been forced to alternative hosts. Consistent with this is the finding the bed bug DNA shows no evidence of an evolutionary bottleneck. Furthermore, investigators have found high populations of bed bugs at poultry facilities in Arkansas. Poultry workers at these facilities may be spreading bed bugs, unknowingly carrying them to their places of residence and elsewhere after leaving work. [19] [20]

In November 2016 a media report noted that tropical bed bugs, Cimex hemipterus, which had been extirpated from the state during World War II, were discovered in Brevard County, Florida, and were expected to spread in distribution within the United States. [21] [22]

Canada

Bed bug infestations have been becoming an increasing issue in urban environments. In a Toronto, Canada study, the mean number of treatments required per affected location was highest at dormitories, hotels, homeless shelters, and rooming houses. Suspected reasons for this increase include increasing world travel, high exchange rates of residents, reluctance to use insecticides because of concerns regarding toxicity, and insecticide resistance. 65 Toronto homeless shelters were surveyed and 31% reported past or present bed bug infestations. [23]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemiptera</span> Order of insects often called true bugs

Hemiptera is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from 1 mm (0.04 in) to around 15 cm (6 in), and share a common arrangement of piercing-sucking mouthparts. The name "true bugs" is often limited to the suborder Heteroptera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyrethroid</span> Class of insecticides

A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums. Pyrethroids are used as commercial and household insecticides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bed bug</span> Type of insect that feeds on human blood

Bed bugs are parasitic insects from the genus Cimex, who are micropredators that feed on blood, usually at night. Their bites can result in a number of health impacts, including skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms. Bed bug bites may lead to skin changes ranging from small areas of redness to prominent blisters. Symptoms may take between minutes to days to appear and itchiness is generally present. Some individuals may feel tired or have a fever. Typically, uncovered areas of the body are affected. Their bites are not known to transmit any infectious disease. Complications may rarely include areas of dead skin or vasculitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cimicidae</span> Family of parasitic blood-feeding insects

The Cimicidae are a family of small parasitic bugs that feed exclusively on the blood of warm-blooded animals. They are called cimicids or, loosely, bed bugs, though the latter term properly refers to the most well-known member of the family, Cimex lectularius, the common bed bug and its tropical relation Cimex hemipterus. The family contains over 100 species. Cimicids appeared in the fossil record in the Cretaceous period. When bats evolved in the Eocene, Cimicids switched hosts and now feed mainly on bats or birds. Members of the group have colonised humans on three occasions.

<i>Cimex lectularius</i> Species of true bug

Cimex lectularius, or the common bed bug, is a species of Cimicidae. Its primary hosts are humans, and it is one of the world's major "nuisance pests."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deltamethrin</span> Chemical compound

Deltamethrin is a pyrethroid ester insecticide. Deltamethrin plays a key role in controlling malaria vectors, and is used in the manufacture of long-lasting insecticidal mosquito nets; however, resistance of mosquitos and bed bugs to deltamethrin has seen a widespread increase.

Bat bugs are parasitic blood-sucking insects that feed primarily on the blood of bats – their hosts. The name has been applied to members of the family Cimicidae and also to members of the family Polyctenidae. Bat bugs are closely related to bed bugs, and are so similar in appearance that they are often mistaken for bed bugs. Microscopic examination is needed to distinguish them. Bat bugs will also bite humans if given the opportunity. Bat bug species include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown marmorated stink bug</span> Species of Pentatomid insect

The brown marmorated stink bug is an insect in the family Pentatomidae, native to China, Japan, Korea, and other Asian regions. In September 1998, it was collected in Allentown, Pennsylvania, where it is believed to have been accidentally introduced. The nymphs and adults of the brown marmorated stink bug feed on over 100 species of plants, including many agricultural crops, and by 2010–11 had become a season-long pest in orchards in the Eastern United States. In 2010, in the Mid-Atlantic United States, $37 million in apple crops were lost, and some stone fruit growers lost more than 90% of their crops. Since the 2010s, the bug has spread to countries such as Georgia and Turkey and caused extensive damage to hazelnut production. It is now established in many parts of North America, and has recently become established in Europe and South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medical entomology</span> Study of insect impacts on human health

The discipline of medical entomology, or public health entomology, and also veterinary entomology is focused upon insects and arthropods that impact human health. Veterinary entomology is included in this category, because many animal diseases can "jump species" and become a human health threat, for example, bovine encephalitis. Medical entomology also includes scientific research on the behavior, ecology, and epidemiology of arthropod disease vectors, and involves a tremendous outreach to the public, including local and state officials and other stake holders in the interest of public safety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Traumatic insemination</span> Mating practice in invertebrates

Traumatic insemination, also known as hypodermic insemination, is the mating practice in some species of invertebrates in which the male pierces the female's abdomen with his aedeagus and injects his sperm through the wound into her abdominal cavity (hemocoel). The sperm diffuses through the female's hemolymph, reaching the ovaries and resulting in fertilization.

<i>Cimex</i> Genus of true bugs

Cimex is a genus of insects in the family Cimicidae. Cimex species are ectoparasites that typically feed on the blood of birds and mammals. Two species, Cimex lectularius and Cimex hemipterus, are known as bed bugs and frequently feed on humans, although other species may parasitize humans opportunistically. Species that primarily parasitize bats are known as bat bugs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Use of DNA in forensic entomology</span>

Forensic entomology has three sub-fields: urban, stored product and medico-criminal entomologies. This article focuses on medico-criminal entomology and how DNA is analyzed with various blood-feeding insects.

Bed bugs are blood feeding insects that may infest human dwellings

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gamasoidosis</span> Dermatitis caused by avian mites

Gamasoidosis, also known as dermanyssosis, is a frequently unrecognized form of dermatitis, following human infestation with avian mites of the genera Dermanyssus or Ornithonyssus. It is characterized by pruritic erythematous papules, macules and urticaria, with itching and irritation resulting from the saliva the mites secrete while feeding. These bites are commonly found around the neck and areas covered by clothing, but can be found elsewhere on the body. The avian mite Dermanyssus gallinae can also infest various body parts, including the ear canal and scalp.

<i>Pyralis pictalis</i> Species of moth

Pyralis pictalis, the painted meal moth or poplar pyralis, is a snout moth. It is closely related to the family's type species the meal moth and consequently belongs to the tribe Pyralini of the snout moth subfamily Pyralinae. Its native range is tropical Asia to East Asia and to Wallacea and adjacent regions, but it has been quite widely distributed by humans. The term "Poplar" in its common name does not refer to the trees, but to Poplar, London, where the type specimen – from such an introduction – was caught. It was called scarce meal moth in the original description, which is only correct for the fringes of its range however.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bed bug control techniques</span>

Bed bugs, or Cimicidae, are small parasitic insects. The term usually refers to species that prefer to feed on human blood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anna Levinson</span> German zoologist

Anna Levinson was a German zoologist who specialized in general and applied entomology. She worked at the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology from 1971, and at the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology from 2004 in Seewiesen and Erling.

Knockdown resistance, also called kdr, describes cases of resistance to diphenylethane and pyrethroid insecticides in insects and other arthropods that result from reduced sensitivity of the nervous system caused by point mutations in the insect population's genetic makeup. Such mutative resistance is characterized by the presence of kdr alleles in the insect's genome. Knockdown resistance, first identified and characterized in the house fly in the 1950s, remains a threat to the continued usefulness of pyrethroids in the control of many pest species. Research since 1990 has provided a wealth of new information on the molecular basis of knockdown resistance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluralaner</span> Chemical compound

Fluralaner, (INN) sold under the brand name Bravecto among others, is a systemic insecticide and acaricide that is administered orally or topically. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it for flea treatment in dogs in May 2014, and approved the combination fluralaner/moxidectin as a topical treatment for cats in November 2019. The EU approved fluralaner in March 2014. Australia approved it for the treatment and prevention of ticks and fleas on dogs in January 2015. For treating mites in chickens, a solution for use in drinking water is available under the brand name Exzolt and was approved for use in the EU in 2017.

<i>Cimex hemipterus</i> Species of true bug

Cimex hemipterus, known as the tropical bed bug, is a species of bed bugs within the family Cimicidae that primarily resides in tropical climates. However, it has been reported that this species can live in more temperate climates along with the closely related bed bug species C. lectularius.C. hemipterus is a hematophagous, obligate parasite of humans. This means that it requires blood meals from their human hosts in order to survive. When bitten, humans experience itchiness, wheals, and lesions around the affected areas on the skin. This species typically resides in human domiciles within cracks, crevices, or mattresses, and are more prevalent in developing countries. Like other bed bugs, C. hemipterus is primarily active during the night time.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Heukelbach J, Hengge UR (2009). "Bed bugs, leeches and hookworm larvae in the skin". Clin. Dermatol. 27 (3): 285–90. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2008.10.008. PMID   19362691.
  2. Jerome Goddard; Richard deShazo (2009). "Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and clinical consequences of their bites". JAMA . 301 (13): 1358–66. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.405. PMID   19336711.
  3. 1 2 Kolb A, Needham GR, Neyman KM, High WA (2009). "Bedbugs". Dermatol Ther. 22 (4): 347–52. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.01246.x . PMID   19580578. S2CID   221648188.
  4. Archive A Romero; MF Potter; DA Potter; KF Haynes (2007). "Insecticide Resistance in the Bed Bug: A Factor in the Pest's Sudden Resurgence?" (PDF). Journal of Medical Entomology. 44 (2): 175–8. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[175:IRITBB]2.0.CO;2. PMID   17427684. S2CID   29722288 . Retrieved 17 September 2010.
  5. Owen, James (13 May 2004). "Bloodthirsty Bedbugs Stage Comeback in U.S., Europe". National Geographic News. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 14 May 2004. Retrieved 31 May 2010.
  6. 1 2 3 Krause-Parello CA, Sciscione P (April 2009). "Bedbugs: an equal opportunist and cosmopolitan creature". J Sch Nurs. 25 (2): 126–32. doi:10.1177/1059840509331438. PMID   19233933. S2CID   5441148.
  7. Bonnefoy, Xavier; Kampen, Helge; Sweeney, Kevin (2008). Public health significance of urban pests (PDF). World Health Organization. p. 131. ISBN   978-92-890-7188-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
  8. Anderson AL, Leffler K (May 2008). "Bedbug infestations in the news: a picture of an emerging public health problem in the United States". J Environ Health. 70 (9): 24–7, 52–3. PMID   18517150.
  9. Bonnefoy, Kampen & Sweeney 2008 , p. 134
  10. King, F; Dick, I; Evans, P (1989). "Bed bugs in Britain". Parasitology Today. 5 (4): 100–2. doi:10.1016/0169-4758(89)90045-8. In the period 1985–1986, the Institution of Environmental Health Officers reported treating 7,771 infestations in England and Wales, and 6,179 infestations in 1986–1987. There were also reports of infestations in Belfast and in Scotland.
  11. "Bed Bug Bites Pictures, Symptoms and Treatment". 7 January 2022.
  12. "Bedbugs plague hits British cities". The Observer. 19 August 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
  13. Voiland, Adam (16 July 2007). "You May not be Alone". U.S. News & World Report. 143 (2): 53–54. Archived from the original on 7 November 2011.
  14. "National Bed Bug Summit". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 5 November 2010. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
  15. Megan Gibson (19 August 2010). "Are Bedbugs Taking Over New York City?". Time .
  16. Brooklyn bed bug exterminator website
  17. New York Fashion. Elle has bedbugs! 20 August 2010. http://nymag.com/daily/fashion/2010/08/elle_has_bedbugs_1.html#comments
  18. O’Reilly, Kelly. New York NBC. Elle Offices Closed for Bedbugs. 20 August 2012. http://www.nbcnewyork.com/blogs/threadny/THREAD-Confirmed-Elle-Offices-Closed-for-Bed-Bugs-101153694.html
  19. Austin, James (2008). "Bed Bugs". Urban and Structural Pests. Center for Urban & Structural Entomology, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M. Archived from the original on 25 June 2010. Retrieved 31 May 2010.
  20. Steelman, C.D.; Szalanski, A.L.; Trout, R.; McKern, J.A.; Solorzano, C.; Austin, J.W. (2008). "Susceptibility of the bed bug Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) to selected insecticides". Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology. 25 (1): 41–51. doi:10.3954/1523-5475-25.1.41. S2CID   42748989.
  21. "Spotted in Florida For First Time Since WWII", Posted: 14 November 2016 04:45 PM EST, Updated: 14 November 2016 04:45 PM EST -- "Tropical bedbugs invade Florida for the first time in 60 years. There are now fears of a widespread infestation", Weather.com
  22. Campbell Brittany E.; Koehler Philip G.; Buss Lyle J.; Baldwin Rebecca W. (2016). "Recent Documentation of the Tropical Bed Bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) in Florida Since the Common Bed Bug Resurgence". Florida Entomologist . 99 (3): 549–551. doi: 10.1653/024.099.0333 .
  23. Hwang SW, Svoboda TJ, De Jong IJ, Kabasele KJ, Gogosis E (April 2005). "Bed bug infestations in an urban environment". Emerging Infect. Dis. 11 (4): 533–8. doi:10.3201/eid1104.041126. PMC   3320350 . PMID   15829190.