Related Research Articles
A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. They occur especially as proteins,often conjugated. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919) and is derived from the word "toxic".
Botulism is a rare and potentially fatal illness caused by a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. The disease begins with weakness,blurred vision,feeling tired,and trouble speaking. This may then be followed by weakness of the arms,chest muscles,and legs. Vomiting,swelling of the abdomen,and diarrhea may also occur. The disease does not usually affect consciousness or cause a fever.
Botulinum toxin,or botulinum neurotoxin,is a neurotoxic protein produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum and related species. It prevents the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from axon endings at the neuromuscular junction,thus causing flaccid paralysis. The toxin causes the disease botulism. The toxin is also used commercially for medical and cosmetic purposes.
Clostridium botulinum is a Gram-positive,rod-shaped,anaerobic,spore-forming,motile bacterium with the ability to produce the neurotoxin botulinum.
Tetanus toxin (TeNT) is an extremely potent neurotoxin produced by the vegetative cell of Clostridium tetani in anaerobic conditions,causing tetanus. It has no known function for clostridia in the soil environment where they are normally encountered. It is also called spasmogenic toxin,tentoxilysin,tetanospasmin or,tetanus neurotoxin. The LD50 of this toxin has been measured to be approximately 2.5–3 ng/kg,making it second only to the related botulinum toxin (LD50 2 ng/kg) as the deadliest toxin in the world. However,these tests are conducted solely on mice,which may react to the toxin differently from humans and other animals.
Clostridium is a genus of anaerobic,Gram-positive bacteria. Species of Clostridium inhabit soils and the intestinal tract of animals,including humans. This genus includes several significant human pathogens,including the causative agents of botulism and tetanus. It also formerly included an important cause of diarrhea,Clostridioides difficile,which was reclassified into the Clostridioides genus in 2016.
Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive,rod-shaped,anaerobic,spore-forming pathogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium. C. perfringens is ever-present in nature and can be found as a normal component of decaying vegetation,marine sediment,the intestinal tract of humans and other vertebrates,insects,and soil. It has the shortest reported generation time of any organism at 6.3 minutes in thioglycolate medium.
Astaxanthin is a keto-carotenoid within a group of chemical compounds known as terpenes. Astaxanthin is a metabolite of zeaxanthin and canthaxanthin,containing both hydroxyl and ketone functional groups. It is a lipid-soluble pigment with red coloring properties,which result from the extended chain of conjugated double bonds at the center of the compound.
Clostridium acetobutylicum,ATCC 824,is a commercially valuable bacterium sometimes called the "Weizmann Organism",after Jewish Russian-born biochemist Chaim Weizmann. A senior lecturer at the University of Manchester,England,he used them in 1916 as a bio-chemical tool to produce at the same time,jointly,acetone,ethanol,and n-butanol from starch. The method has been described since as the ABE process,,yielding 3 parts of acetone,6 of n-butanol,and 1 of ethanol. Acetone was used in the important wartime task of casting cordite. The alcohols were used to produce vehicle fuels and synthetic rubber.
Gas gangrene is a bacterial infection that produces tissue gas in gangrene. This deadly form of gangrene usually is caused by Clostridium perfringens bacteria. About 1,000 cases of gas gangrene are reported yearly in the United States.
Clostridium enterotoxins are toxins produced by Clostridium species. Clostridial species are one of the major causes of food poisoning/gastrointestinal illnesses. They are anaerobic,gram-positive,spore-forming rods that occur naturally in the soil. Among the family are:Clostridium botulinum,which produces one of the most potent toxins in existence;Clostridium tetani,causative agent of tetanus;and Clostridium perfringens,commonly found in wound infections and diarrhea cases.
Clostridium difficile toxin B is a cytotoxin produced by the bacteria Clostridioides difficile,formerly known as Clostridium difficile. It is one of two major kinds of toxins produced by C. difficile,the other being an related enterotoxin. Both are very potent and lethal.
The AB toxins are two-component protein complexes secreted by a number of pathogenic bacteria,though there is a pore-forming AB toxin found the eggs of a snail. They can be classified as Type III toxins because they interfere with internal cell function. They are named AB toxins due to their components:the "A" component is usually the "active" portion,and the "B" component is usually the "binding" portion. The "A" subunit possesses enzyme activity,and is transferred to the host cell following a conformational change in the membrane-bound transport "B" subunit. These proteins consist of two independent polypeptides,which correspond to the A/B subunit moieties. The enzyme component (A) enters the cell through endosomes produced by the oligomeric binding/translocation protein (B),and prevents actin polymerisation through ADP-ribosylation of monomeric G-actin.
Microbial toxins are toxins produced by micro-organisms,including bacteria,fungi,protozoa,dinoflagellates,and viruses. Many microbial toxins promote infection and disease by directly damaging host tissues and by disabling the immune system. Endotoxins most commonly refer to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or lipooligosaccharide (LOS) that are in the outer plasma membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The botulinum toxin,which is primarily produced by Clostridium botulinum and less frequently by other Clostridium species,is the most toxic substance known in the world. However,microbial toxins also have important uses in medical science and research. Currently,new methods of detecting bacterial toxins are being developed to better isolate and understand these toxin. Potential applications of toxin research include combating microbial virulence,the development of novel anticancer drugs and other medicines,and the use of toxins as tools in neurobiology and cellular biology.
Clostridium butyricum is a strictly anaerobic endospore-forming Gram-positive butyric acid–producing bacillus subsisting by means of fermentation using an intracellularly accumulated amylopectin-like α-polyglucan (granulose) as a substrate. It is uncommonly reported as a human pathogen and is widely used as a probiotic in Asia. C. butyricum is a soil inhabitant in various parts of the world,has been cultured from the stool of healthy children and adults,and is common in soured milk and cheeses. The connection with dairy products is shown by the name,the butyr- in butyricum reflects the relevance of butyric acid in the bacteria's metabolism and the connection with Latin butyrum and Greek βούτυρον,with word roots pertaining to butter and cheese.
Clostridium novyi (oedematiens) a Gram-positive,endospore- forming,obligate anaerobic bacteria of the class Clostridia. It is ubiquitous,being found in the soil and faeces. It is pathogenic,causing a wide variety of diseases in man and animals.
The gene rpoE encodes the sigma factor sigma-24,a protein in Escherichia coli and other species of bacteria. Depending on the bacterial species,this gene may be referred to as sigE.
The Clostridial Cytotoxin (CCT) Family is a member of the RTX-toxin superfamily. There are currently 13 classified members belonging to the CCT family. A representative list of these proteins is available in the Transporter Classification Database. Homologues are found in a variety of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Edwin Michael Foster was an American microbiologist,specializing in food microbiology. He was the president of the American Society for Microbiology (ASM) in 1970.
Phaffia is a genus of fungi in the order Cystofilobasidiales. The genus comprises orange-red yeasts that form basidia directly from yeast cells,lack hyphae throughout their life cycle,and produce astaxanthin,a carotenoid used as an additive in animal feed to enhance colour in shrimp,salmon,and poultry eggs and also as an antioxidant in dietary supplements.
References
- ↑ "SELECTBIO – Cell Based Assays Speaker Biography". selectbiosciences.com.
- ↑ "Eric Johnson honored by Society for Industrial Microbiology – eCALS". ecals.cals.wisc.edu.
- 1 2 Dressler, Dirk; Johnson, Eric A. (June 1, 2022). "Obituary: Dr Alan Brown Scott". Toxicon. 212: A1–A2. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.03.013 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ "American society for microbiology".
- 1 2 "American Society for Microbiology Distinguished Lecturers" (PDF).
- 1 2 "Eric A. Johnson, ScD | International Neurotoxin Association".
- ↑ "Assay for Botulinum Toxin Testing" (PDF).
- ↑ "Eric A. Johnson – Food Science". foodsci.wisc.edu.
- ↑ Schantz, E J; Johnson, E A (March 10, 1992). "Properties and use of botulinum toxin and other microbial neurotoxins in medicine". Microbiological Reviews. 56 (1): 80–99. doi:10.1128/mr.56.1.80-99.1992. PMC 372855 . PMID 1579114 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Borodic, Gary; Johnson, Eric; Goodnough, Mike; Schantz, Edward (January 1, 1996). "Botulinum toxin therapy, immunologic resistance, and problems with available materials". Neurology. 46 (1): 26–29. doi:10.1212/WNL.46.1.26. PMID 8559392 – via n.neurology.org.
- ↑ Dong, Min; Yeh, Felix; Tepp, William H.; Dean, Camin; Johnson, Eric A.; Janz, Roger; Chapman, Edwin R. (April 28, 2006). "SV2 Is the Protein Receptor for Botulinum Neurotoxin A". Science. 312 (5773): 592–596. doi:10.1126/science.1123654 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Dressler, Dirk; Johnson, Eric A. (June 1, 2022). "Botulinum toxin therapy: past, present and future developments". Journal of Neural Transmission. 129 (5): 829–833. doi:10.1007/s00702-022-02494-5. PMC 9188496 . PMID 35396965 – via Springer Link.
- ↑ Johnson, Eric A.; Bradshaw, Marite (November 1, 2001). "Clostridium botulinum and its neurotoxins: a metabolic and cellular perspective". Toxicon. 39 (11): 1703–1722. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(01)00157-X – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Johnson, Eric A.; Sakajoh, Mitsuji; Halliwell, Geoffrey; Madia, Ashwin; Demain, Arnold L. (May 10, 1982). "Saccharification of Complex Cellulosic Substrates by the Cellulase System from Clostridium thermocellum". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 43 (5): 1125–1132. doi:10.1128/aem.43.5.1125-1132.1982. PMC 244196 . PMID 16346009 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Johnson, Eric A. (October 10, 1999). "Clostridial Toxins as Therapeutic Agents: Benefits of Nature's Most Toxic Proteins". Annual Review of Microbiology. 53 (1): 551–575. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.53.1.551 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Johnson, Eric A.; Madia, Ashwin; Demain, Arnold L. (April 10, 1981). "Chemically Defined Minimal Medium for Growth of the Anaerobic Cellulolytic Thermophile Clostridium thermocellum". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 41 (4): 1060–1062. doi:10.1128/aem.41.4.1060-1062.1981. PMC 243859 . PMID 16345748 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Whitmer, M E; Johnson, E A (March 10, 1988). "Development of improved defined media for Clostridium botulinum serotypes A, B, and E". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 54 (3): 753–759. doi:10.1128/aem.54.3.753-759.1988. PMC 202536 . PMID 3288120 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Johnson, Eric A.; Lewis, Michael J. (July 10, 1979). "Astaxanthin Formation by the Yeast Phaffia rhodozyma". Microbiology. 115 (1): 173–183. doi: 10.1099/00221287-115-1-173 – via Microbiology Society Journals.
- ↑ Johnson, Eric A.; An, Gil-Hwan (January 10, 1991). "Astaxanthin from Microbial Sources". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 11 (4): 297–326. doi:10.3109/07388559109040622 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Johnson, Eric A.; Villa, Tomas G.; Lewis, Michael J. (June 1, 1980). "Phaffia rhodozyma as an astaxanthin source in salmonid diets". Aquaculture. 20 (2): 123–134. doi:10.1016/0044-8486(80)90041-1 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Johnson, E A; Villa, T G; Lewis, M J; Phaff, H J (June 10, 1978). "Simple method for the isolation of astaxanthin from the basidiomycetous yeast Phaffia rhodozyma". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 35 (6): 1155–1159. doi:10.1128/aem.35.6.1155-1159.1978. PMC 242999 . PMID 28079 – via CrossRef.
| Authority control: Academics |
|---|
