GIS in archaeology

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GIS or Geographic Information Systems has been an important tool in archaeology since the early 1990s. [1] Indeed, archaeologists were early adopters, users, and developers of GIS and GIScience, Geographic Information Science. The combination of GIS and archaeology has been considered a perfect match, since archaeology often involves the study of the spatial dimension of human behavior over time, and all archaeology carries a spatial component.

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Since archaeology looks at the unfolding of historical events through geography, time and culture, the results of archaeological studies are rich in spatial information. GIS is adept at processing these large volumes of data, especially that which is geographically referenced. It is a cost-effective, accurate and fast tool. The tools made available through GIS help in data collection, its storage and retrieval, its manipulation for customized circumstances and, finally, the display of the data so that it is visually comprehensible by the user. The most important aspect of GIS in archaeology lies, however, not in its use as a pure map-making tool, but in its capability to merge and analyse different types of data in order to create new information. The use of GIS in archaeology has changed not only the way archaeologists acquire and visualise data, but also the way in which archaeologists think about space itself. GIS has therefore become more of a science than an objective tool.

GIS in survey

Surveys and documentation are important to preservation and archaeology, and GIS makes this research and fieldwork efficient and precise. [2] Research done using GIS capabilities is used as a decision making tool to prevent loss of relevant information that could impact archaeological sites and studies. It is a significant tool that contributes to regional planning and for cultural resource management to protect resources that are valuable through the acquisition and maintenance of data about historical sites.

In archaeology, GIS increases the ability to map and record data when it is used directly at the excavation site. This allows for immediate access to the data collected for analysis and visualization as an isolated study or it can be incorporated with other relevant data sources to help understand the site and its findings better.

The ability of GIS to model and predict likely archaeological sites is used by companies that are involved with utilizing vast tracts of land resources like the Department of Transportation. Section 106 of the National Preservation Act specifically requires historical sites as well as others to be assessed for impact through federally funded projects. Using GIS to assess archaeological sites that may exist or be of importance can be identified through predictive modeling. These studies and results are then used by the management to make relevant decisions and plan for future development. GIS makes this process less time consuming and more precise.

There are different processes and GIS functionalities that are used in archaeological research. Intrasite spatial analysis or distributional analysis of the information on the site helps in understanding the formation, process of change and in documentation of the site. This leads to research, analysis and conclusions. The old methods utilized for this provide limited exposure to the site and provide only a small picture of patterns over broad spaces. Predictive modeling is used through data acquisition like that of hydrography and hypsography to develop models along with archaeological data for better analysis. Point data in GIS is used to focus on point locations and to analyze trends in data sets or to interpolate scattered points. Density mapping is done for the analysis of location trends and interpolation is done to aid surface findings through the creation of surfaces through point data and is used to find occupied levels in a site. Aerial data is more commonly used. It focuses on the landscape and the region and helps interpret archaeological sites in their context and settings. Aerial data is analyzed through predictive modeling which is used to predict location of sites and material in a region. It is based on the available knowledge, method of prediction and on the actual results. This is used primarily in cultural resource management.

GIS in analysis

GIS is able to store, manipulate and combine multiple data sets, making complex analyses of the landscape possible. Catchment analysis is the analysis of catchment areas, the region surrounding the site accessible with a given expenditure of time or effort. Viewshed analysis is the study of what regions surrounding the site are visible from that site. This has been used to interpret the relationship of sites to their social landscape. Simulation is a simplified representation of reality, attempting to model phenomena by identifying key variables and their interactions. This is used to think through problem formulation, as a means of testing hypothetical predictions, and also as a means to generate data.

In recent years, it has become clear that archaeologists will only be able to harvest the full potential of GIS or any other spatial technology if they become aware of the specific pitfalls and potentials inherent in the archaeological data and research process. Archaeoinformation science attempts to uncover and explore spatial and temporal patterns and properties in archaeology. Research towards a uniquely archaeological approach to information processing produces quantitative methods and computer software specifically geared towards archaeological problem solving and understanding.

GIS in cultural heritage conservation and management

In addition to archaeological research applications, GIS is also used to help manage the conservation of cultural heritage sites. GIS helps conservation organizations monitor the impacts of development, conflict, and climate change on archaeological and other cultural resources. [3] Some public agencies use GIS software to assess the potential impacts of construction and other development and use these assessments in permitting and mitigation processes.[ citation needed ] [4]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geographic information system</span> System to capture, manage and present geographic data

A geographic information system (GIS) consists of integrated computer hardware and software that store, manage, analyze, edit, output, and visualize geographic data. Much of this often happens within a spatial database, however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS. In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the body of knowledge of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaeological site</span> Place in which evidence of past activity is preserved

An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past activity is preserved, and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record. Sites may range from those with few or no remains visible above ground, to buildings and other structures still in use.

Computational archaeology describes computer-based analytical methods for the study of long-term human behaviour and behavioural evolution. As with other sub-disciplines that have prefixed 'computational' to their name, the term is reserved for methods that could not realistically be performed without the aid of a computer.

Landscape archaeology, a sub-discipline of archaeology and archaeological theory, is the study of the ways in which people in the past constructed and used the environment around them. It is also known as archaeogeography. Landscape archaeology is inherently multidisciplinary in its approach to the study of culture, and is used by pre-historical, classic, and historic archaeologists. The key feature that distinguishes landscape archaeology from other archaeological approaches to sites is that there is an explicit emphasis on the sites' relationships between material culture, human alteration of land/cultural modifications to landscape, and the natural environment. The study of landscape archaeology has evolved to include how landscapes were used to create and reinforce social inequality and to announce one's social status to the community at large. The field includes with the dynamics of geohistorical objects, such as roads, walls, boundaries, trees, and land divisions.

Environmental archaeology is a sub-field of archaeology which emerged in 1970s and is the science of reconstructing the relationships between past societies and the environments they lived in. The field represents an archaeological-palaeoecological approach to studying the palaeoenvironment through the methods of human palaeoecology. Reconstructing past environments and past peoples' relationships and interactions with the landscapes they inhabited provides archaeologists with insights into the origin and evolution of anthropogenic environments, and prehistoric adaptations and economic practices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Survey (archaeology)</span> Non-destructive exploration of the archaeological material in a given area

In archaeology, survey or field survey is a type of field research by which archaeologists search for archaeological sites and collect information about the location, distribution and organization of past human cultures across a large area. Archaeologists conduct surveys to search for particular archaeological sites or kinds of sites, to detect patterns in the distribution of material culture over regions, to make generalizations or test hypotheses about past cultures, and to assess the risks that development projects will have adverse impacts on archaeological heritage. The surveys may be: (a) intrusive or non-intrusive, depending on the needs of the survey team and; (b) extensive or intensive, depending on the types of research questions being asked of the landscape in question. Surveys can be a practical way to decide whether or not to carry out an excavation, but may also be ends in themselves, as they produce important information about past human activities in a regional context.

ArcSDE is a server-software sub-system that aims to enable the usage of Relational Database Management Systems for spatial data. The spatial data may then be used as part of a geodatabase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ArcGIS</span> Geographic information system maintained by Esri

ArcGIS is a family of client, server and online geographic information system (GIS) software developed and maintained by Esri. ArcGIS was first released in 1999 and originally was released as ARC/INFO, a command line based GIS system for manipulating data. ARC/INFO was later merged into ArcGIS Desktop, which was eventually superseded by ArcGIS Pro in 2015. ArcGIS Pro works in 2D and 3D for cartography and visualization, and includes machine learning (ML).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spatial analysis</span> Formal techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties

Spatial analysis is any of the formal techniques which studies entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties. Spatial analysis includes a variety of techniques using different analytic approaches, especially spatial statistics. It may be applied in fields as diverse as astronomy, with its studies of the placement of galaxies in the cosmos, or to chip fabrication engineering, with its use of "place and route" algorithms to build complex wiring structures. In a more restricted sense, spatial analysis is geospatial analysis, the technique applied to structures at the human scale, most notably in the analysis of geographic data. It may also be applied to genomics, as in transcriptomics data.

Participatory GIS (PGIS) or public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) is a participatory approach to spatial planning and spatial information and communications management.

A historical geographic information system is a geographic information system that may display, store and analyze data of past geographies and track changes in time. It can be regarded as a tool for historical geography.

Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) is a geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing software for both vector and raster processing. Its features include digitizing, editing, analysis and display of data, and production of quality maps. ILWIS was initially developed and distributed by ITC Enschede in the Netherlands for use by its researchers and students. Since 1 July 2007, it has been released as free software under the terms of the GPL-2.0-only license. Having been used by many students, teachers and researchers for more than two decades, ILWIS is one of the most user-friendly integrated vector and raster software programmes currently available. ILWIS has some very powerful raster analysis modules, a high-precision and flexible vector and point digitizing module, a variety of very practical tools, as well as a great variety of user guides and training modules all available for downloading. The current version is ILWIS 3.8.6. Similar to the GRASS GIS in many respects, ILWIS is currently available natively only on Microsoft Windows. However, a Linux Wine manual has been released.

Traditional knowledge geographic information systems (GIS) are the data, techniques, and technologies designed to document and utilize local knowledges in communities around the world. Traditional knowledge is information that encompasses the experiences of a particular culture or society. Traditional knowledge GIS differ in comparison to ordinary cognitive maps in that they express environmental and spiritual relationships among real and conceptual entities. This toolset focuses on cultural preservation, land rights disputes, natural resource management, and economic development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GIS and aquatic science</span>

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has become an integral part of aquatic science and limnology. Water by its very nature is dynamic. Features associated with water are thus ever-changing. To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats. Agencies like the US Geological Survey, US Fish and Wildlife Service as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zamani Project</span>

The Zamani Project is part of the African Cultural Heritage Sites and Landscapes Database. Zamani is a research group at the University of Cape Town, which acquires, models, presents and manages spatial and other data from cultural heritage sites. The present focus of the Zamani project is Africa, with the principal objective of developing “The African Cultural Heritage Sites and Landscapes Database”. Zamani comes from the Swahili phrase “Hapo zamani za kale” which means “Once upon a time”, and can be used to mean 'the past'. The word is derived from Arabic root for temporal vocabulary, ‘Zaman,’ and appears in several languages around the world.

In archaeology, phenomenology is the application of sensory experiences to view and interpret an archaeological site or cultural landscape in the past. It views space as socially produced and is concerned with the ways people experience and understand spaces, places and Landscapes. Phenomenology became a part of the Post-processual archaeology movement in the early 1990s and was a reaction to Processual archaeology's proposed 'scientific' treatment of space as an abstract and empty locus for action. In contrast, phenomenology proposes a 'humanized' space which is embedded with meaning and is created through praxis. Phenomenology therefore treats the landscape as a network of places, each of which bears meaning and is connected through movements and narratives.

The Middle Eastern Geodatabase for Antiquities (MEGA) is a web based geographic information system or GIS developed by the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI), with matching funds from the World Monuments Fund (WMF) and in partnership with the Jordanian Department of Antiquities (DoA). The GIS will serve as the primary tool for the Jordanian DoA in its ongoing work to inventory, monitor, and manage Jordan's vast number of archaeological sites.

Assaad Seif is a Lebanese archaeologist and Associate Professor in Archaeology at the Lebanese University. Former Head of the Scientific Departments and coordinator of archaeological research and excavations in Lebanon, at the Directorate General of Antiquities in Beirut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geospatial topology</span> Type of spatial relationship

Geospatial topology is the study and application of qualitative spatial relationships between geographic features, or between representations of such features in geographic information, such as in geographic information systems (GIS). For example, the fact that two regions overlap or that one contains the other are examples of topological relationships. It is thus the application of the mathematics of topology to GIS, and is distinct from, but complementary to the many aspects of geographic information that are based on quantitative spatial measurements through coordinate geometry. Topology appears in many aspects of geographic information science and GIS practice, including the discovery of inherent relationships through spatial query, vector overlay and map algebra; the enforcement of expected relationships as validation rules stored in geospatial data; and the use of stored topological relationships in applications such as network analysis. Spatial topology is the generalization of geospatial topology for non-geographic domains, e.g., CAD software.

Digital archaeology is the application of information technology and digital media to archaeology. It includes the use of digital photography, 3D reconstruction, virtual reality, and geographical information systems, among other techniques. Computational archaeology, which covers computer-based analytical methods, can be considered a subfield of digital archaeology, as can virtual archaeology.

References

  1. ↑ Conolly J and Lake M (2006) Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  2. ↑ Marwick, Ben; Hiscock, Peter; Sullivan, Marjorie; Hughes, Philip (July 2017). "Landform boundary effects on Holocene forager landscape use in arid South Australia". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 19: 864–874. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.07.004. S2CID   134572456.
  3. ↑ Anderson, David G.; Bissett, Thaddeus G.; Yerka, Stephen J.; Wells, Joshua J.; Kansa, Eric C.; Kansa, Sarah W.; Myers, Kelsey Noack; DeMuth, R. Carl; White, Devin A. (2017-11-29). "Sea-level rise and archaeological site destruction: An example from the southeastern United States using DINAA (Digital Index of North American Archaeology)". PLOS ONE. 12 (11): e0188142. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1288142A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188142 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   5706671 . PMID   29186200.
  4. ↑ Dalgity, Alison; Myers, David; Schmidt Patterson, Catherine (Fall 2022). "The Arches Platform: Bridging Heritage Pasts and Data-Rich Futures". Conservation Perspectives, The GCI Newsletter. Fall 2022. https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/newsletters/pdf/v37n2.pdf
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