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Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. B. thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, and flour mills and grain-storage facilities. It has also been observed to parasitize other moths such as Cadra calidella—in laboratory experiments working with C. calidella, many of the moths were diseased due to this parasite.
Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), from animals to plants and microorganisms. Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species, and even across kingdoms. New genes can be introduced, or endogenous genes can be enhanced, altered, or knocked out.
Triticale is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale) first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century in Scotland and Germany. Commercially available triticale is almost always a second-generation hybrid, i.e., a cross between two kinds of primary (first-cross) triticales. As a rule, triticale combines the yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and environmental tolerance of rye. Only recently has it been developed into a commercially viable crop. Depending on the cultivar, triticale can more or less resemble either of its parents. It is grown mostly for forage or fodder, although some triticale-based foods can be purchased at health food stores and can be found in some breakfast cereals.
Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.
In genetic engineering, a gene gun or biolistic particle delivery system is a device used to deliver exogenous DNA (transgenes), RNA, or protein to cells. By coating particles of a heavy metal with a gene of interest and firing these micro-projectiles into cells using mechanical force, an integration of desired genetic information can be introduced into desired cells. The technique involved with such micro-projectile delivery of DNA is often referred to as biolistics.
Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.
Stem rust, also known as cereal rust, black rust, red rust or red dust, is caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis, which causes significant disease in cereal crops. Crop species that are affected by the disease include bread wheat, durum wheat, barley and triticale. These diseases have affected cereal farming throughout history. The annual recurrence of stem rust of wheat in North Indian plains was discovered by Prof. K.C. Mehta. Since the 1950s, wheat strains bred to be resistant to stem rust have become available. Fungicides effective against stem rust are available as well.
Ug99 is a lineage of wheat stem rust, which is present in wheat fields in several countries in Africa and the Middle East and is predicted to spread rapidly through these regions and possibly further afield, potentially causing a wheat production disaster that would affect food security worldwide. In 2005 the noted green revolution pioneer Norman Borlaug brought great attention to the problem, and most subsequent efforts can be traced to his advocacy. It can cause up to 100% crop losses and is virulent against many resistance genes which have previously protected wheat against stem rust.
Genetically modified plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colours in plants, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. Many plant cells are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and then under the right conditions form a new plant. This ability can be taken advantage of by genetic engineers; by selecting for cells that have been successfully transformed in an adult plant a new plant can then be grown that contains the transgene in every cell through a process known as tissue culture.
A transplastomic plant is a genetically modified plant in which genes are inactivated, modified or new foreign genes are inserted into the DNA of plastids like the chloroplast instead of nuclear DNA.
Genetic pollution is a controversial term for uncontrolled gene flow into wild populations. It is defined as "the dispersal of contaminated altered genes from genetically engineered organisms to natural organisms, esp. by cross-pollination", but has come to be used in some broader ways. It is related to the population genetics concept of gene flow, and genetic rescue, which is genetic material intentionally introduced to increase the fitness of a population. It is called genetic pollution when it negatively impacts on the fitness of a population, such as through outbreeding depression and the introduction of unwanted phenotypes which can lead to extinction.
Resistance genes (R-Genes) are genes in plant genomes that convey plant disease resistance against pathogens by producing R proteins. The main class of R-genes consist of a nucleotide binding domain (NB) and a leucine rich repeat (LRR) domain(s) and are often referred to as (NB-LRR) R-genes or NLRs. Generally, the NB domain binds either ATP/ADP or GTP/GDP. The LRR domain is often involved in protein-protein interactions as well as ligand binding. NB-LRR R-genes can be further subdivided into toll interleukin 1 receptor (TIR-NB-LRR) and coiled-coil (CC-NB-LRR).
Genetically modified rice are rice strains that have been genetically modified. Rice plants have been modified to increase micronutrients such as vitamin A, accelerate photosynthesis, tolerate herbicides, resist pests, increase grain size, generate nutrients, flavours or produce human proteins.
A genetically modified tomato, or transgenic tomato, is a tomato that has had its genes modified, using genetic engineering. The first trial genetically modified food was a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life, which was on the market briefly beginning on May 21, 1994. The first direct consumption tomato was approved in Japan in 2021. Primary work is focused on developing tomatoes with new traits like increased resistance to pests or environmental stresses. Other projects aim to enrich tomatoes with substances that may offer health benefits or be more nutritious. As well as aiming to produce novel crops, scientists produce genetically modified tomatoes to understand the function of genes naturally present in tomatoes.
A genetically modified tree is a tree whose DNA has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a novel trait to the plant which does not occur naturally within the species. Examples include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, and herbicide tolerance, or the alteration of lignin levels in order to reduce pulping costs.
Jonathan Gressel is an Israeli agricultural scientist and Professor Emeritus at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. Gressel is a "strong proponent of using modern genetic techniques to improve agriculture" especially in third world and developing countries such as Africa. In 2010, Gressel received Israel's highest civilian award, the Israel Prize, for his work in agriculture
Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11, otherwise known as DMH - 11, is a genetically modified hybrid variety of the mustard species Brassica juncea. It was developed by Professor Deepak Pental from the University of Delhi, with the aim of reducing India's demand for edible oil imports. DMH - 11 was created through transgenic technology, primarily involving the Bar, Barnase and Barstar gene system. The Barnase gene confers male sterility, while the Barstar gene restores DMH - 11's ability to produce fertile seeds. The insertion of the third gene Bar, enables DMH - 11 to produce phosphinothricin-N- acetyl-transferase, the enzyme responsible for Glufosinate resistance. This hybrid mustard variety has come under intense public scrutiny, mainly due to concerns regarding DMH - 11's potential to adversely affect the environment as well as consumer health. DMH - 11 was found not to pose any food allergy risks, and has demonstrated increased yields over existing mustard varieties. Conflicting details and results regarding the field trials and safety evaluations conducted on DMH - 11 have delayed its approval for commercial cropping.
Gene pyramiding is the simultaneous selection for and/or introduction of multiple genes during plant breeding.
2Blades is an agricultural phytopathology non-profit which performs research to improve durable genetic resistance in crops, and funds other researchers to do the same. 2Blades was co-founded by Dr. Roger Freedman and Dr. Diana Horvath in 2004.
References
- ↑ Halpin, Claire (2005-02-03). "Gene stacking in transgenic plants - the challenge for 21st century plant biotechnology". Plant Biotechnology Journal . Wiley Publishing. 3 (2): 141–155. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2004.00113.x . ISSN 1467-7644. PMID 17173615.
- ↑ Luo, Ming; Xie, Liqiong; Chakraborty, Soma; Wang, Aihua; Matny, Oadi; Jugovich, Michelle; Kolmer, James A.; Richardson, Terese; Bhatt, Dhara; Hoque, Mohammad; Patpour, Mehran; Sørensen, Chris; Ortiz, Diana; Dodds, Peter; Steuernagel, Burkhard; Wulff, Brande B. H.; Upadhyaya, Narayana M.; Mago, Rohit; Periyannan, Sambasivam; Lagudah, Evans; Freedman, Roger; Lynne Reuber, T.; Steffenson, Brian J.; Ayliffe, Michael (2020-12-09). "A five-transgene cassette confers broad-spectrum resistance to a fungal rust pathogen in wheat". Nature Portfolio Bioengineering Community. Retrieved 2021-07-02.
- ↑ Luo, Ming; Xie, Liqiong; Chakraborty, Soma; Wang, Aihua; Matny, Oadi; Jugovich, Michelle; Kolmer, James A.; Richardson, Terese; Bhatt, Dhara; Hoque, Mohammad; Patpour, Mehran; Sørensen, Chris; Ortiz, Diana; Dodds, Peter; Steuernagel, Burkhard; Wulff, Brande B. H.; Upadhyaya, Narayana M.; Mago, Rohit; Periyannan, Sambasivam; Lagudah, Evans; Freedman, Roger; Lynne Reuber, T.; Steffenson, Brian J.; Ayliffe, Michael (2021-01-14). "Innovative gene stacks enhance wheat rust resistance". John Innes Centre . Retrieved 2021-07-02.
- 1 2 3 Zhu, Suxian; Li, Ying; Vossen, Jack H.; Visser, Richard G. F.; Jacobsen, Evert (2011-04-10). "Functional stacking of three resistance genes against Phytophthora infestans in potato". Transgenic Research . Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 21 (1): 89–99. doi: 10.1007/s11248-011-9510-1 . ISSN 0962-8819. PMC 3264857 . PMID 21479829.
- Taverniers, Isabel; Papazova, Nina; Bertheau, Yves; De Loose, Marc; Holst-Jensen, Arne (2008). "Gene stacking in transgenic plants: towards compliance between definitions, terminology, and detection within the EU regulatory framework". Environmental Biosafety Research . EDP Sciences. 7 (4): 197–218. doi: 10.1051/ebr:2008018 . ISSN 1635-7922. PMID 19081008.
- 1 2 p. 199, "Independent of modern biotechnology, “stacking” traditionally refers to the natural addition of different plant properties by genetic crossing. Modern biotechnology has broadened the options for stacking to include more taxonomically diverse sources, a wider selection of genes and regulatory elements, and consequently of traits."
- ↑ p. 197, "The term gene pyramiding is used in agricultural research to describe a breeding approach to achieve pest control and higher crop yield. It is essentially a way of identifying and introducing multiple genes, which each impart resistance to an independent insect/microbial pest/weed etc., or impart resistance to a single pest through independent host pathways."
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