Graceful labeling

Last updated April 29, 2024

In graph theory, a graceful labeling of a graph with $m$ edges is a labeling of its vertices with some subset of the integers from 0 to $m$ inclusive, such that no two vertices share a label, and each edge is uniquely identified by the absolute difference between its endpoints, such that this magnitude lies between 1 and $m$ inclusive.^[1] A graph which admits a graceful labeling is called a graceful graph.

A major conjecture in graph theory is the graceful tree conjecture or Ringel–Kotzig conjecture, named after Gerhard Ringel and Anton Kotzig, and sometimes abbreviated GTC.^[3] It hypothesizes that all trees are graceful. It is still an open conjecture, although a related but weaker conjecture known as "Ringel's conjecture" was partially proven in 2020.^[4]^[5]^[6] Kotzig once called the effort to prove the conjecture a "disease".^[7]

Another weaker version of graceful labelling is near-graceful labeling, in which the vertices can be labeled using some subset of the integers on $[0, m + 1]$ such that no two vertices share a label, and each edge is uniquely identified by the absolute difference between its endpoints (this magnitude lies on $[1, m + 1]$ ).

Another conjecture in graph theory is Rosa's conjecture, named after Alexander Rosa, which says that all triangular cacti are graceful or nearly-graceful.^[8]

A graceful graph with edges 0 to $m$ is conjectured to have no fewer than $\left\lceil {\sqrt {3m+{\tfrac {9}{4}}}}\right\rfloor$ vertices, due to sparse ruler results. This conjecture has been verified for all graphs with 213 or fewer edges.

A graceful graph with 27 edges and 9 vertices Toroidal6.png — A graceful graph with 27 edges and 9 vertices

Selected results

In his original paper, Rosa proved that an Eulerian graph with number of edges m ≡ 1 (mod 4) or m ≡ 2 (mod 4) cannot be graceful.^[2]
Also in his original paper, Rosa proved that the cycle C_n is graceful if and only if n ≡ 0 (mod 4) or n ≡ 3 (mod 4).
All path graphs and caterpillar graphs are graceful.^[2]
All lobster graphs with a perfect matching are graceful.^[9]
All trees with at most 27 vertices are graceful; this result was shown by Aldred and McKay in 1998 using a computer program.^[10]^[11] This was extended to trees with at most 29 vertices in the Honours thesis of Michael Horton.^[12] Another extension of this result up to trees with 35 vertices was claimed in 2010 by the Graceful Tree Verification Project, a distributed computing project led by Wenjie Fang.^[13]
All wheel graphs, web graphs, helm graphs, gear graphs, and rectangular grids are graceful.^[10]
All n-dimensional hypercubes are graceful.^[14]
All simple connected graphs with four or fewer vertices are graceful. The only non-graceful simple connected graphs with five vertices are the 5-cycle (pentagon); the complete graph K₅; and the butterfly graph.^[15]

Related Research Articles

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Circulant graph</span> Undirected graph acted on by a vertex-transitive cyclic group of symmetries

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oberwolfach problem</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kotzig's theorem</span>

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References

↑ Virginia Vassilevska, "Coding and Graceful Labeling of trees." SURF 2001. PostScript
1 2 3 Rosa, A. (1967), "On certain valuations of the vertices of a graph", Theory of Graphs (Internat. Sympos., Rome, 1966), New York: Gordon and Breach, pp. 349–355, MR 0223271 .
↑ Wang, Tao-Ming; Yang, Cheng-Chang; Hsu, Lih-Hsing; Cheng, Eddie (2015), "Infinitely many equivalent versions of the graceful tree conjecture", Applicable Analysis and Discrete Mathematics, 9 (1): 1–12, doi: 10.2298/AADM141009017W , MR 3362693
↑ Montgomery, Richard; Pokrovskiy, Alexey; Sudakov, Benny (2020). "A proof of Ringel's Conjecture". arXiv: 2001.02665 [math.CO].
↑ Huang, C.; Kotzig, A.; Rosa, A. (1982), "Further results on tree labellings", Utilitas Mathematica, 21: 31–48, MR 0668845 .
↑ Hartnett, Kevin. "Rainbow Proof Shows Graphs Have Uniform Parts". Quanta Magazine. Retrieved 2020-02-29.
↑ Huang, C.; Kotzig, A.; Rosa, A. (1982), "Further results on tree labellings", Utilitas Mathematica, 21: 31–48, MR 0668845 .
↑ Rosa, A. (1988), "Cyclic Steiner Triple Systems and Labelings of Triangular Cacti", Scientia, 1: 87–95.
↑ Morgan, David (2008), "All lobsters with perfect matchings are graceful", Bulletin of the Institute of Combinatorics and Its Applications, 53: 82–85, hdl:10402/era.26923 .
1 2 Gallian, Joseph A. (1998), "A dynamic survey of graph labeling", Electronic Journal of Combinatorics, 5: Dynamic Survey 6, 43 pp. (389 pp. in 18th ed.) (electronic), MR 1668059 .
↑ Aldred, R. E. L.; McKay, Brendan D. (1998), "Graceful and harmonious labellings of trees", Bulletin of the Institute of Combinatorics and Its Applications, 23: 69–72, MR 1621760 .
↑ Horton, Michael P. (2003), Graceful Trees: Statistics and Algorithms .
↑ Fang, Wenjie (2010), A Computational Approach to the Graceful Tree Conjecture, arXiv: 1003.3045 , Bibcode:2010arXiv1003.3045F . See also Graceful Tree Verification Project
↑ Kotzig, Anton (1981), "Decompositions of complete graphs into isomorphic cubes", Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B, 31 (3): 292–296, doi: 10.1016/0095-8956(81)90031-9 , MR 0638285 .
↑ Weisstein, Eric W. "Graceful graph". MathWorld .

Graceful labeling

Contents

Selected results

See also

Related Research Articles

References

External links

Further reading