Gross motor skill

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Playground structures often help children to develop gross motor skills such as climbing and balancing. Playground Days (7713193228).jpg
Playground structures often help children to develop gross motor skills such as climbing and balancing.

Gross motor skills are the abilities usually acquired during childhood as part of a child's motor learning. By the time they reach two years of age, almost all children are able to stand up, walk and run, walk up stairs, etc. These skills are built upon, improved and better controlled throughout early childhood, and continue in refinement throughout most of the individual's years of development into adulthood. These gross movements come from large muscle groups and whole body movement. These skills develop in a head-to-toe order. The children will typically learn head control, trunk stability, and then standing up and walking. It is shown that children exposed to outdoor play time activities will develop better gross motor skills.

Contents

Types of motor skills

Motor skills are movements and actions of the muscles. Typically, they are categorized into two groups: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and other large body parts and movements. Gross motor skills can be further divided into two subgroups of locomotor skills and object control skills. Gross locomotor skills would include running, jumping, sliding, and swimming. Object control skills would include throwing, catching and kicking. Fine motor skills are involved in smaller movements that occur in the wrists, hands, fingers, and the feet and toes. They participate in smaller actions such as picking up objects between the thumb and finger, writing carefully, and even blinking. These two motor skills work together to provide coordination. Less developed children focus on their gross movements, while more developed children have more control over their fine movements.[ citation needed ]

Development of posture

Gross motor skills, as well as many other activities, require postural control. Infants need to control the heads to stabilize their gaze and to track moving objects. They also must have strength and balance in their legs to walk. [1] Newborn infants cannot voluntarily control their posture. Within a few weeks, though, they can hold their heads erect, and soon they can lift their heads while prone. By 2 months of age, babies can sit while supported on a lap or an infant seat, but sitting independently is not accomplished until 6 or 7 months of age. Standing also develops gradually across the first year of life. By about 8 months of age, infants usually learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a chair, and they often can stand alone by about 10 to 12 months of age. [1] There is a new device called a "Standing Dani" developed to help special needs children with their posture. [2]

Learning to walk

Walking upright requires being able to stand up and balance position from one foot to the other. Although infants usually learn to walk around the time of their first birthday, the neural pathways that control the leg alternation component of walking are in place from a very early age, possibly even at birth or before. When 1- to 2-month-olds are given support with their feet in contact with a motorized treadmill, they show well-coordinated, alternating steps. If it were not for the problem of switching balance from one foot to the other, babies could walk earlier. Tests were performed on crawling and walking babies where slopes were placed in front of the path and the babies had to decide whether or not it was safe. The tests proved that babies who just learned how to walk did not know what they were capable of and often went down slopes that were not safe, whereas experienced walkers knew what they could do. Practice plays a big part in teaching a child how to walk. [1]

Vision does not have an effect on muscle growth, however it could slow down the child's process of learning to walk. According to the nonprofit Blind Children Center, "Without special training, fully capable infants who are visually impaired may not learn to crawl or walk at an appropriate age and gross and fine motor skills will not properly develop." When the child is not able to see an object then there is no motivation for the child to try to reach for it. Therefore, they do not want to learn independently. Children with visual impairments often experience a delay in achieving static balance, and use objects, such as furniture, for balance longer than children with normal vision. [3]

Learning to walk is done by modeling others and watching them. Children when put in environments with older children will observe and try and copy their movements. This helps the child learn through trial and error. Children learning to walk will imitate other children, developing walking and balance skills more quickly than if relying on their own errors. Visually impaired children may need physical therapy to help them learn these gross motor skills faster. One hour of therapy each week is not sufficient so parents have to make sure they are involved in this process. The parent can help by telling the baby the direction where an object is and encourage them to get it. Parents must have patience because every child has their own developmental schedule and it is even more true for the children with special needs. Focus on the child's progress is more important than comparison of the child's development to other children. [4]

Infancy development

It has been observed by scientists that motor skills generally develop from the center to the body outward and head to tail. Babies need to practice their skills; therefore they will grow and strengthen better. They need space and time to explore in their environment and use their muscles. "Tummy-time" is a good example of this. At first they are only able to lay their belly on the floor but by around two months they start to gain muscle to raise their head and chest off the ground. Some are also able to go on their elbows. They will also start to kick and bend their legs while lying there, this helps to prepare for crawling. By four months they are able to start to control their head and hold it steady while sitting up. Rolling from belly to back movements is started. At about five months the baby will start to wiggle their limbs to strengthen crawling muscles. Infants can start to sit up by themselves and put some weight on their legs as they hold onto something for support by six months. As they enter their first-year caregivers needs to be more active. The babies will want to get into everything so the house needs to become 'baby proofed'. Babies are able to start to reach and play with their toys too. It is said that the use of baby walkers or devices that help to hold the baby upright are said to delay the process of walking. Research has been found that it delays developing the core torso strength, which can lead to different issues down in their future. Around ten months they should be able to stand on their own. Throughout their years of life different motor skills are formed. (Oswalt) With regards to the gait pattern, study shows that infant at 12 months old exhibit larger mediolateral motion, which may be caused by weak muscle strength and lack of stability. They also show a synchronized use of hip and shoulder while they are walking, which is different from a mature gait pattern performed by adults. The ankles didn't move as much among 12-month infants as compared to that of adults performing a mature walking. [5]

Development in the second year

Development in the second year of life, toddlers become more motorically skilled and mobile. They are no longer content with being in a playpen and want to move all over the place. Child development experts believe that motor activity during the second year is vital to the child's competent development and that few restrictions, except for safety, should be placed on their motoric adventures. [1] By 13 to 18 months, toddlers can move up and down steps and carry toys. Once they reach the top of the stairs though, they are not able to get back down. They also begin to move from one position to another more smoothly. (Oswalt) Significant changes in gait patterns are also observed in the second year. Infants in the second year have a discordant use of hip and shoulder while walking, which is closer to an adult walking pattern. They are also able to utilize the range of motion of their ankles, toes, and heels more, which is similar to a mature walk. [5] By 18 to 24 months, can move quicker or run for a short distance along with other motor skills. They also start to walk backwards and in circles and begin to run. They can also not only walk up the stairs with their hands and feet but are now able to hold onto the handrail and walk up. Near the end of their second year, complex gross motor skills begin to develop including throwing and kicking. Their skills becomes more natural. Pedaling a tricycle and jumping in place is acquired. At the end they are very mobile and can go from place to place. It is normal for them to get themselves into small situations that could be dangerous such as walking into the street because their brain can't send the information fast enough to their feet. Parents need to keep an eye on their children at all times. (Oswalt) In a majority of the select kinematic and kinetic variables, there are greater differences between two-year-old children and four-year-old-children than there are between four year old children and six year old children. The variables for which there were significant differences tended to be in displacement, velocity, and magnitude of force measurements. [6]

Development of children with disabilities

Children with disabilities who are as young as seven months can learn to drive a power wheelchair using a joystick interface. [7]

This chair may decrease the rate of development of the child's gross motor skills, but there are ways to compensate for this. These children usually work with a physical therapist to help with their leg movements. Walkers and other devices are used to help aide this process and avoid obstacles. The negative side to this is that they are limited in their mobility. There is research out to find a device to encourage children to explore their environment while gaining their gross motor skills. This will also hopefully help them with their exercise. [2]

A 2017 Cochrane review found that for children with delays associated with cerebral palsy or Down Syndrome up to the age of six the use of a treadmill may accelerate the development of independent walking. [8]

Childhood

Early childhood is a critical period for the development of fundamental motor skills. Children in preschooler, develop depending on their interactions with the surrounding environment. A child in an encouraging environment with constructive feedback will develop fundamental motor skills at a faster rate. Typically, females perform better fundamental movement skills at an earlier age than males. Although many studies prove this to be true, it is dominantly true in walking. Girls typically go through maturity faster than boys do, causing them to also be less active. This allows boys to be deemed more active, due to the fact that they mature much later than their opposing gender. However, this does not give a clear answer as to whether or not girls learn to walk before boys. One would think that learning to walk sooner would allow for a higher activity level, though since girls have a noticeably lower activity level than boys, one would assume that this would mean that girls would learn to walk after boys. But since they mature earlier, that would involve the walking stage. As they grow older, children become more proficient in their tasks allowing them to use their high developed skill for events such as sports where these motor skills are highly required. Children who do not master fundamental motor skills are less likely to participate in sport games during childhood and adolescence. This is one explanation of why boys tend to be more or less athletic than their opposite gender. Children at a younger age might not be able to perform at the level of older children, but their ability to learn and improve on motor skills is much higher. [ citation needed ]

At 3 years of age, children enjoy simple movements, such as hopping, jumping, and running back and forth, just for the sheer delight of performing these activities. However, the findings in the article "The relationship between fine and gross motor ability, self-perceptions and self-worth in children and adolescents" it stated that there was not a statistical significance in athletic competence and social competence. This correlation coefficient was .368 and simply means that there is a low correlation between those two relationships. A child being able to perform certain gross and fine motor skills does not mean that they will have the ability to demonstrate social skills such as conversation, social awareness, sensitivity, and body language. [9] This Their body stability is focused on the child's dynamic body base and is related to their visual perceptions such as height, depth, or width. [1] A study was done to assess motor skill development and the overall rate and level of growth development. This study shows that at the preschool age children develop more goal-directed behaviors. This plays a big role, because their learning focuses around play and physical activity. While assessing the gross motor skills in children can be challenging, it is essential to do so in order to ensure that children are prepared to interact with the environment they live in. Different tests are given to these children to measure their skill level. [10]

At age 4, children continue to do the same actions as they did at age 3, but further their moving. They are beginning to be able to go down the stairs with one foot on each step. At 5 years of age, they are fully able to go down the stairs one foot at a time in addition to improvements in their balance and running. Their body stability becomes more mature and their trunk is fixed on their posture. Performances are more fluent and are less influenced by factors such a slope and width. During middle and late childhood, children's motor development becomes much smoother and more coordinated than it was in early childhood. [1] As they age, children become able to have control over their bodies and have an increased attention span. Having children practice a sport helps them develop their coordination through the use of the varied movements involved in the sport. [11] Participating in a sport also shows benefits in social development for children. [12] Teachers will suggest that their students may need occupational therapists in different situations. Students could get frustrated doing writing exercises if they are having difficulties with their writing skills. It also may affect the teacher because it is illegible. Some children also may have reports of their "hands getting tired". There are many occupational therapists out there today to give students the help they need. These therapists were once used when something was seriously wrong with your child but now they are used to help children be the best they can be. [10] According to the article "The Relationship Between Fundamental Motor Skills and Outside-School Physical Activity of Elementary School Children", the developmental level of overhand throwing and jumping of elementary kids is related to skill specific physical activity outside of school. In the studies done, boys were seen to have higher scores in developmental level of overhand throwing and higher scores for the Caltrac accelerometer, rapid-trunk movement, and motor skill related physical activities. Girls were seen to have higher scores in lower-intensity physical activities and physical inactivity. The study showed that the developmental level of the fundamental skills (overhand-throwing and jumping) are related to skill-specific physical activity outside of school in elementary children. We can conclude that boys will develop fundamental motor skills more quickly than girls will. In other studies it has been seen that having a higher motor proficiency leads to kids being more physically active, and in most cases more athletic. This can lead to some issues in childhood development such as issues with weight, and increasing the public health epidemic of childhood obesity. [13]

Adolescence and adulthood

Between the ages of 7 and 12, children's running speed continues to increase and they get better at motor tasks such as skipping. Along with horizontal movement skills, they also improve with vertical/diagonal movement skills such as jumping, as well as in skills involving strength and precision like throwing, kicking, hitting a baseball with a bat, or dribbling a basketball. (Age) Gross motor skills usually continue improving during adolescence. The peak of physical performance is before 30, between 18 and 26. Even though athletes keep getting better than their predecessors—running faster, jumping higher, and lifting more weight—the age at which they reach their peak performance has remained virtually the same. [1] After age 30, most functions begin to decline. Older adults move slower than younger adults. This can be moving from one place to another or continually moving. Exercising regularly and maintaining a healthy lifestyle can slow this process. Aging individuals who are active and biologically healthy perform motor skills at a higher level than their less active, less healthy aging counterparts. [1]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerebral palsy</span> Movement disorders that appear in early childhood

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of movement disorders that appear in early childhood. Signs and symptoms vary among people and over time, but include poor coordination, stiff muscles, weak muscles, and tremors. There may be problems with sensation, vision, hearing, and speech. Often, babies with cerebral palsy do not roll over, sit, crawl or walk as early as other children. Other symptoms may include seizures and problems with thinking or reasoning. While symptoms may get more noticeable over the first years of life, underlying problems do not worsen over time.

A toddler is a child approximately 1 to 3 years old, though definitions vary. The toddler years are a time of great cognitive, emotional and social development. The word is derived from "to toddle", which means to walk unsteadily, like a child of this age.

A motor skill is a function that involves specific movements of the body's muscles to perform a certain task. These tasks could include walking, running, or riding a bike. In order to perform this skill, the body's nervous system, muscles, and brain have to all work together. The goal of motor skill is to optimize the ability to perform the skill at the rate of success, precision, and to reduce the energy consumption required for performance. Performance is an act of executing a motor skill or task. Continuous practice of a specific motor skill will result in a greatly improved performance, which leads to motor learning. Motor learning is a relatively permanent change in the ability to perform a skill as a result of continuous practice or experience.

Hypotonia is a state of low muscle tone, often involving reduced muscle strength. Hypotonia is not a specific medical disorder, but a potential manifestation of many different diseases and disorders that affect motor nerve control by the brain or muscle strength. Hypotonia is a lack of resistance to passive movement, whereas muscle weakness results in impaired active movement. Central hypotonia originates from the central nervous system, while peripheral hypotonia is related to problems within the spinal cord, peripheral nerves and/or skeletal muscles. Severe hypotonia in infancy is commonly known as floppy baby syndrome. Recognizing hypotonia, even in early infancy, is usually relatively straightforward, but diagnosing the underlying cause can be difficult and often unsuccessful. The long-term effects of hypotonia on a child's development and later life depend primarily on the severity of the muscle weakness and the nature of the cause. Some disorders have a specific treatment but the principal treatment for most hypotonia of idiopathic or neurologic cause is physical therapy and/or occupational therapy for remediation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Childhood development of fine motor skills</span>

Fine motor skills are the coordination of small muscle movements which occur e.g., in the fingers, usually in coordination with the eyes. In application to motor skills of hands the term dexterity is commonly used.

The term 'dexterity' is defined by Latash and Turrey (1996) as a 'harmony in movements' (p. 20). Dexterity is a type of fine coordination usually demonstrated in upper extremity function.

Visual learning is a learning style among the learning styles of Neil Fleming's VARK model in which information is presented to a learner in a visual format. Visual learners can utilize graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, and other forms of visual stimulation to effectively interpret information. The Fleming VARK model also includes Kinesthetic Learning and Auditory learning. There is no evidence that providing visual materials to students identified as having a visual style improves learning.

Child development stages are the theoretical milestones of child development, some of which are asserted in nativist theories. This article discusses the most widely accepted developmental stages in children. There exists a wide variation in terms of what is considered "normal", caused by variations in genetic, cognitive, physical, family, cultural, nutritional, educational, and environmental factors. Many children reach some or most of these milestones at different times from the norm.

Diplegia, when used singularly, refers to paralysis affecting symmetrical parts of the body. This is different from hemiplegia which refers to spasticity restricted to one side of the body, paraplegia which refers to paralysis restricted to the legs and hip, and quadriplegia which requires the involvement of all four limbs but not necessarily symmetrical. Diplegia is the most common cause of crippling in children, specifically in children with cerebral palsy. Other causes may be due to injury of the spinal cord. There is no set course of progression for people with diplegia. Symptoms may get worse but the neurological part does not change. The primary parts of the brain that are affected by diplegia are the ventricles, fluid filled compartments in the brain, and the wiring from the center of the brain to the cerebral cortex. There is also usually some degeneration of the cerebral neurons, as well as problems in the upper motor neuron system. The term diplegia can refer to any bodily area, such as the face, arms, or legs.

Primitive reflexes are reflex actions originating in the central nervous system that are exhibited by normal infants, but not neurologically intact adults, in response to particular stimuli. These reflexes are suppressed by the development of the frontal lobes as a child transitions normally into child development. These primitive reflexes are also called infantile, infant or newborn reflexes.

A selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR), also known as a rhizotomy, dorsal rhizotomy, or a selective posterior rhizotomy, is a neurosurgical procedure that selectively cuts problematic nerve roots in the spinal cord. This procedure has been well-established in the literature as a surgical intervention and is used to relieve negative symptoms of neuromuscular conditions such as spastic diplegia and other forms of spastic cerebral palsy. The specific sensory nerves inducing spasticity are identified using electromyographic (EMG) stimulation and graded on a scale of 1 (mild) to 4. Abnormal nerve responses are isolated and cut, thereby reducing symptoms of spasticity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child development</span> Stages in the development of children

Child development involves the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the conclusion of adolescence. It is—particularly from birth to five years— a foundation for a prosperous and sustainable society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grasp</span>

A grasp is an act of taking, holding or seizing firmly with the hand. An example of a grasp is the handshake, wherein two people grasp one of each other's like hands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Management of cerebral palsy</span>

Over time, the approach to cerebral palsy management has shifted away from narrow attempts to fix individual physical problems – such as spasticity in a particular limb – to making such treatments part of a larger goal of maximizing the person's independence and community engagement. Much of childhood therapy is aimed at improving gait and walking. Approximately 60% of people with CP are able to walk independently or with aids at adulthood. However, the evidence base for the effectiveness of intervention programs reflecting the philosophy of independence has not yet caught up: effective interventions for body structures and functions have a strong evidence base, but evidence is lacking for effective interventions targeted toward participation, environment, or personal factors. There is also no good evidence to show that an intervention that is effective at the body-specific level will result in an improvement at the activity level, or vice versa. Although such cross-over benefit might happen, not enough high-quality studies have been done to demonstrate it.

A gait trainer is a wheeled device that assists a person who is unable to walk independently to learn or relearn to walk safely and efficiently as part of gait training. Gait trainers are intended for children or adults with physical disabilities, to provide the opportunity to improve walking ability. A gait trainer offers both unweighting support and postural alignment to enable gait practice. It functions as a support walker and provides more assistance for balance and weight-bearing, than does a traditional rollator walker, or a walker with platform attachments. It also provides opportunities to stand and to bear weight in a safe, supported position.

Fine motor skill is the coordination of small muscles in movement with the eyes, hands and fingers. The complex levels of manual dexterity that humans exhibit can be related to the nervous system. Fine motor skills aid in the growth of intelligence and develop continuously throughout the stages of human development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ataxic cerebral palsy</span> Medical condition

Ataxic cerebral palsy is clinically in approximately 5–10% of all cases of cerebral palsy, making it the least frequent form of cerebral palsy diagnosed. Ataxic cerebral palsy is caused by damage to cerebellar structures, differentiating it from the other two forms of cerebral palsy, which are spastic cerebral palsy and dyskinetic cerebral palsy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spastic cerebral palsy</span> Cerebral palsy characterized by high muscle tone

Spastic cerebral palsy is the type of cerebral palsy characterized by spasticity or high muscle tone often resulting in stiff, jerky movements. Cases of spastic CP are further classified according to the part or parts of the body that are most affected. Such classifications include spastic diplegia, spastic hemiplegia, spastic quadriplegia, and in cases of single limb involvement, spastic monoplegia.

When adults come into contact with infants, the adult often changes their persona in order to try to elicit a reaction from the infant, to teach them life lessons, or to physically stimulate them. They may simplify their speech to concise sentences or words for them to repeat, or speak in nonsensical phrases. They may make simple movements with their finger on objects for them to copy, or point to brand names/logos or people in family photos to see if they identify them. They may also choose to play one of various games, many of which are old favourites. While the parents or carers may or may not choose to do this on when alone with the child, when in the presence of guests the conversation tends to either divert completely to this type of interaction or at least have these forms of interaction take place as asides in the conversation. Sometimes the interaction is one-sided, with the adult taking satisfaction with their attempts, even though the infant does not react, or react without really understanding it. At other times, the interaction is two-sided, and both parties derive pleasure or other emotions from it. Some adults do not change at all when in the presence of other families' infants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early childhood development</span> Rapid physical, psychological and social growth

Early childhood development is the period of rapid physical, psychological and social growth and change that begins before birth and extends into early childhood. While early childhood is not well defined, one source asserts that the early years begin in utero and last until 3 years of age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interlimb coordination</span> Coordination of the left and right limbs

Interlimb coordination is the coordination of the left and right limbs. It could be classified into two types of action: bimanual coordination and hands or feet coordination. Such coordination involves various parts of the nervous system and requires a sensory feedback mechanism for the neural control of the limbs. A model can be used to visualize the basic features, the control centre of locomotor movements, and the neural control of interlimb coordination. This coordination mechanism can be altered and adapted for better performance during locomotion in adults and for the development of motor skills in infants. The adaptive feature of interlimb coordination can also be applied to the treatment for CNS damage from stroke and the Parkinson's disease in the future.

References

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  3. ↑ Ambrose-Zaken, Grace (July 2023). "Beyond Hand's Reach: Haptic Feedback Is Essential to Toddlers With Visual Impairments Achieving Independent Walking". Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness. 117 (4): 278–291. doi:10.1177/0145482X231188728.
  4. ↑ Foster, Elizabeth Ann; Silliman-French, Lisa; Grenier, Michelle (September 2020). "Parents' Perceptions of Constraints Impacting the Development of Walking in Children with CHARGE Syndrome". Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities. 45 (3): 196–211. doi:10.1177/1540796920927656.
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  11. ↑ Pereira, Ana Laura da Silva; Almeida, Maria Helena Farias de; Oliveira, Marcélia Nogueira de; Sousa Júnior, Reiilson Benedito da Silva; Mendes, Francivaldo José da Conceição; Silva, Rosângela Lima da; Sousa, Smayk Barbosa; Melo, Gileno Edu Lameira de; Cabreira, Alessandro Negreta; Zaffalon Junior, Jose Robertto (2024-05-13). "Analysis of the implications of different sports on children's motor coordination: An integrative review". V Seven International Multidisciplinary Congress. Seven Congress. doi:10.56238/sevenvmulti2024-144.
  12. ↑ Chowdhury, Joy (2023-06-14). "Effect of Sports Participation on Social Development in Children Ages 6-14". The Child Health Interdisciplinary Literature and Discovery Journal. 2 (1). doi:10.15173/child.v2i1.3474. ISSN   2816-8909.
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