Health campaign

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A health campaign is a type of media campaign which attempts to promote public health by making new health interventions available. The organizers of a health campaign frequently use education along with an opportunity to participate further, such as when a vaccination campaign seeks both to educate the public about a vaccine and provide the vaccine to people who want it. When a health campaign has international relevance it may be called a global health campaign.

Contents

Examples

Health education

Many diseases and medical problems have a "health education campaign" or "awareness campaign" associated with them. The goal of such a campaign is to make people conscious of the impact of diseases and to provide them information about the disease if they want to learn more about it.

Eradication of infectious diseases

Various health campaigns have taken the goal of eradicating infectious diseases. In such campaigns the organizers recruit the public to participate in the campaign by talking about it with others and encouraging others to participate.

Behavior modification campaign

An organization may organize a campaign which asks for participants to change their behavior in some way. Examples of such projects are smoking cessation campaigns which ask people to quit smoking, HIV prevention campaigns which ask people to do things such as use condoms to reduce HIV infection risk, or exercise campaigns which encourage people to engage in physical activity for health.

Organizations as campaigns

In some cases the work of an organization may itself be a health campaign. This may happen when, for example, an organization exists to provide health information or medical resources to anyone who requests them. The organization itself may conduct a series of health campaigns, and its entire operation may be called a health campaign.

Health Campaign Design: ACME Framework

The Audience-Channel-Message-Evaluation (ACME) framework provides integrated guidance for effective health communication campaign design, implementation, and evaluation. [1] The ACME framework suggests four principles to follow when developing a health communication campaign: 1) audience segmentation, 2) channel selection, 3) theory-based message design, and 4) outcome evaluation. The four principles are interconnected in guiding every decision point over the course of health campaign development. For instance, audience segmentation implies channel selection, message design, and evaluation plans.  Message design additionally determines channel selection, and vice versa. Evaluation is carried out through the whole campaign development and implementation rather than a one-time, separate assessment.

Audience (who?)

The first principle to consider when developing an effective campaign is to identify the target audience. The procedure is also known as audience segmentation, which refers to a step narrowing down a homogenous audience to a heterogenous audience that shares similar patterns of beliefs, behaviors, and values. [2] Segmentation strategies could be as broad as focusing on demographic or geographic characteristics such as gender and location. Yet it could also be as specific as dividing groups based on shared attitudes toward a given object (e.g., positive attitudes toward a promoted health behavior) or similar behaviors (e.g., performing healthy eating behaviors).  

For instance, guided by the Risk Perception Attitude framework (RPA), [3] people can be segmented into four attitudinal groups based on their risk perception and self-efficacy, including responsive group (high risk, high efficacy), avoidance group (high risk, low efficacy), proactive group (low risk, high efficacy), and indifference group (low risk, low efficacy). Putting into a health promotion context aiming for increasing young adults’ use of genetic tests, young adults can be further segmented into four groups based on their genetic risk and efficacy beliefs. [4] Those who have a high-risk perception toward genetic diseases and believe in engaging in self-protective health behaviors can protect their genes belong to the group of activists (i.e., responsive group in RPA). Those who have a high-risk perception toward genetic diseases but do not believe they have the ability to protect their genes by engaging in health behaviors belong to the threatened group (i.e., avoidance group in RPA). Those who believe in the positive impact of health behaviors on genes but do not feel at risk of genetic diseases belong to the group of controllers (i.e., proactive group in RPA). Lastly, those who are not aware of the risk of genetic diseases yet the benefit of health behaviors belong to the group of skeptics (i.e., indifferent group in RPA). Depending on how the audience is segmented, campaign designers can tailor more specific messages and deliver the messages via the most appropriate channel to the targeted group.

Channel (how?)

The principle of channel selection determines the effectiveness of campaign implementation. [1] The key underlying question here is how to reach the target audience defined by the first principle (audience segmentation) and how to ensure the campaign messages can be viewed by the intended group of people with multiple exposures. Broadly, communication channels can be selected from two categories: interpersonal or computer-mediated communication channels. Additionally, communication channels can differ in small features such as access, reach, specialization, depth, and credibility. For example, television and print media are two distinct channels differing in access and specialization. As technology continues to advance the media landscape, digital channels such as social media or other interactive tools can also be included in the considerations. [5] With wide choices of channel selection, multi-channel dissemination can be more desirable and effective than single channel. [6] The length of delivery time on the chosen channels is another decision needed to be considered in this process. [1]

Message (what?)

The principle of message design is guided by audience segmentation and behavioral theories. [1] With the specific characteristics of the target audience in mind, campaign designers have more room to tailor the message to be personally relevant and thus increase persuasiveness. Behavioral theories can help campaign designers to recognize the underlying behavioral determinants that are in need of change to realize the campaign goal. Guided by theories, messages can be designed to embody those latent behavioral determinants to better secure the success of the campaign in changing a specific behavior.  

For instance, according to Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), people are more likely to adapt their behaviors when they have a high perceived threat and high perceived efficacy to avoid the threat. [7] Messages thus can be designed to elicit individuals’ perceptions of threat and efficacy. Putting into AIDS education context, [8] messages can embody threat by emphasizing the severity of HIV infection such as showing graphic photographs of late-stage AIDS victims and vividly describing the health consequences. To elicit perceived efficacy, messages can highlight the effectiveness of using condoms to reduce the risk of HIV transmission and the ease of using condoms.

Evaluation (did it work?)

The principle of evaluation in the ACME framework emphasizes conducting a set of assessments, rather than a one-time, separate process. [1]   It refers to three aspects of evaluation: 1) formative evaluation, 2) process evaluation, and 3) outcome evaluation. Formative evaluation focuses on evaluating the initial campaign design, examining whether audience segmentation, message design, and channel selection are clear and interconnected. Process evaluation concerns the effectiveness of campaign implementation, ensuring the campaign’s reach and exposure to the intended audiences. Outcome evaluation examines the success of a campaign in achieving intended effects while ruling out unintended effects.

See also

Related Research Articles

Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling information in social interaction. It was first conceptualized by Erving Goffman in 1959 in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, and then was expanded upon in 1967.

Behavior change, in context of public health, refers to efforts put in place to change people's personal habits and attitudes, to prevent disease. Behavior change in public health can take place at several levels and is known as social and behavior change (SBC). More and more, efforts focus on prevention of disease to save healthcare care costs. This is particularly important in low and middle income countries, where supply side health interventions have come under increased scrutiny because of the cost.

The social norms approach, or social norms marketing, is an environmental strategy gaining ground in health campaigns. While conducting research in the mid-1980s, two researchers, H.W. Perkins and A.D. Berkowitz, reported that students at a small U.S. college held exaggerated beliefs about the normal frequency and consumption habits of other students with regard to alcohol. These inflated perceptions have been found in many educational institutions, with varying populations and locations. Despite the fact that college drinking is at elevated levels, the perceived amount almost always exceeds actual behavior. The social norms approach has shown signs of countering misperceptions, however research on changes in behavior resulting from changed perceptions varies between mixed to conclusively nonexistent.

A target audience is the intended audience or readership of a publication, advertisement, or other message catered specifically to said intended audience. In marketing and advertising, it is a particular group of consumer within the predetermined target market, identified as the targets or recipients for a particular advertisement or message. Businesses that have a wide target market will focus on a specific target audience for certain messages to send, such as The Body Shops Mother's Day advertisements, which were aimed at the children and spouses of women, rather than the whole market which would have included the women themselves. A target audience is formed from the same factors as a target market, but it is more specific, and is susceptible to influence from other factors. An example of this was the marketing of the USDA's food guide, which was intended to appeal to young people between the ages of 2 and 18.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social cognitive theory</span> Theory in psychology

Social cognitive theory (SCT), used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura as an extension of his social learning theory. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned. In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.

Behavioural change theories are attempts to explain why human behaviours change. These theories cite environmental, personal, and behavioural characteristics as the major factors in behavioural determination. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the application of these theories in the areas of health, education, criminology, energy and international development with the hope that understanding behavioural change will improve the services offered in these areas. Some scholars have recently introduced a distinction between models of behavior and theories of change. Whereas models of behavior are more diagnostic and geared towards understanding the psychological factors that explain or predict a specific behavior, theories of change are more process-oriented and generally aimed at changing a given behavior. Thus, from this perspective, understanding and changing behavior are two separate but complementary lines of scientific investigation.

The situational theory of publics theorizes that large groups of people can be divided into smaller groups based on the extent to which they are aware of a problem and the extent to which they do something about the problem. For example, some people may begin uninformed and uninvolved; communications to them may be intended to make them aware and engaged. Communications to those who are aware but disengaged may focus on informing them of ways in which they could act. Further classifications are made on the basis to which people are actively seeking or passively encountering information about the problem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health belief model</span> Psychological model

The health belief model (HBM) is a social psychological health behavior change model developed to explain and predict health-related behaviors, particularly in regard to the uptake of health services. The HBM was developed in the 1950s by social psychologists at the U.S. Public Health Service and remains one of the best known and most widely used theories in health behavior research. The HBM suggests that people's beliefs about health problems, perceived benefits of action and barriers to action, and self-efficacy explain engagement in health-promoting behavior. A stimulus, or cue to action, must also be present in order to trigger the health-promoting behavior.

Fear appeal is a term used in psychology, sociology and marketing. It generally describes a strategy for motivating people to take a particular action, endorse a particular policy, or buy a particular product, by arousing fear. A well-known example in television advertising was a commercial employing the musical jingle: "Never pick up a stranger, pick up Prestone anti-freeze." This was accompanied by images of shadowy strangers (hitchhikers) who would presumably do one harm if picked up. The commercial's main appeal was not to the positive features of Prestone anti-freeze, but to the fear of what a "strange" brand might do.

The extended parallel process model (EPPM) is a fear appeal theory developed by communications scholar Kim Witte that illustrates how individuals react to fear-inducing messages. Witte subsequently published an initial test of the model in Communication Monographs.

Health communication is the study and practice of communicating promotional health information, such as in public health campaigns, health education, and between doctor and patient. The purpose of disseminating health information is to influence personal health choices by improving health literacy. Health communication is a unique niche in healthcare that allows professionals to use communication strategies to inform and influence decisions and actions of the public to improve health.

Protection motivation theory (PMT) was originally created to help understand individual human responses to fear appeals. Protection motivation theory proposes that people protect themselves based on two factors: threat appraisal and coping appraisal. Threat appraisal assesses the severity of the situation and examines how serious the situation is, while coping appraisal is how one responds to the situation. Threat appraisal consists of the perceived severity of a threatening event and the perceived probability of the occurrence, or vulnerability. Coping appraisal consists of perceived response efficacy, or an individual's expectation that carrying out the recommended action will remove the threat, and perceived self efficacy, or the belief in one's ability to execute the recommended courses of action successfully.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social and behavior change communication</span>

Social and behavior change communication (SBCC), often also only "BCC" or "Communication for Development (C4D)" is an interactive process of any intervention with individuals, group or community to develop communication strategies to promote positive behaviors which are appropriate to their settings and thereby solving the world's most pressing health problems. This in turn provides a supportive environment which will enable people to initiate, sustain and maintain positive and desirable behavior outcomes.

Audience segmentation is a process of dividing people into homogeneous subgroups based upon defined criterion such as product usage, demographics, psychographics, communication behaviors and media use. Audience segmentation is used in commercial marketing so advertisers can design and tailor products and services that satisfy the targeted groups. In social marketing, audiences are segmented into subgroups and assumed to have similar interests, needs and behavioral patterns and this assumption allows social marketers to design relevant health or social messages that influence the people to adopt recommended behaviors. Audience segmentation is widely accepted as a fundamental strategy in communication campaigns to influence health and social change. Audience segmentation makes campaign efforts more effective when messages are tailored to the distinct subgroups and more efficient when the target audience is selected based on their susceptibility and receptivity.

The PRECEDE–PROCEED model is a cost–benefit evaluation framework proposed in 1974 by Lawrence W. Green that can help health program planners, policy makers and other evaluators, analyze situations and design health programs efficiently. It provides a comprehensive structure for assessing health and quality of life needs, and for designing, implementing and evaluating health promotion and other public health programs to meet those needs. One purpose and guiding principle of the PRECEDE–PROCEED model is to direct initial attention to outcomes, rather than inputs. It guides planners through a process that starts with desired outcomes and then works backwards in the causal chain to identify a mix of strategies for achieving those objectives. A fundamental assumption of the model is the active participation of its intended audience — that is, that the participants ("consumers") will take an active part in defining their own problems, establishing their goals and developing their solutions.

A behavior change method, or behavior change technique, is a theory-based method for changing one or several determinants of behavior such as a person's attitude or self-efficacy. Such behavior change methods are used in behavior change interventions. Although of course attempts to influence people's attitude and other psychological determinants were much older, especially the definition developed in the late nineties yielded useful insights, in particular four important benefits:

  1. It developed a generic, abstract vocabulary that facilitated discussion of the active ingredients of an intervention
  2. It emphasized the distinction between behavior change methods and practical applications of these methods
  3. It included the concept of 'parameters for effectiveness', important conditions for effectiveness often neglected
  4. It drew attention to the fact that behavior change methods influence specific determinants.

The Johns Hopkins Center for Communication Programs (CCP) was founded over 30 years ago by Phyllis Tilson Piotrow as a part the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health's department of Health, Behavior, and Society and is located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States.

The comprehensive model of information seeking, or CMIS, is a theoretical construct designed to predict how people will seek information. It was first developed by J. David Johnson and has been utilized by a variety of disciplines including library and information science and health communication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolores Albarracín</span>

Dolores Albarracín is a psychologist, author and professor of psychology and business based in Pennsylvania. She is Professor of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania. She is known for her work in the fields of behavior, communication and persuasion. Her contributions have had implications for the scientific understanding of basic social psychological processes and communication policy, especially in the area of health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate communication</span> Environmental and science communication

Climate communication or climate change communication is a field of environmental communication and science communication focused on the causes, nature and effects of anthropogenic climate change.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Noar, Seth M. (2011-03-24). "An Audience–Channel–Message–Evaluation (ACME) Framework for Health Communication Campaigns". Health Promotion Practice. 13 (4): 481–488. doi:10.1177/1524839910386901. ISSN   1524-8399.
  2. ↑ Slater, M. D. (1996). Theory and Method in Health Audience Segmentation. Journal of Health Communication, 1(3), 267–284. doi : 10.1080/108107396128059
  3. ↑ Rimal, R. N. and Real, K. (2003). Perceived Risk and Efficacy Beliefs as Motivators of Change.: Use of the Risk Perception Attitude (RPA) Framework to Understand Health Behaviors. Human Communication Research, 29(3), 370–399. doi : 10.1111/j.1468-2958.2003.tb00844.x
  4. ↑ Smith, Rachel A.; Greenberg, Marisa; Parrott, Roxanne L. (2014-05-28). "Segmenting by Risk Perceptions: Predicting Young Adults' Genetic-Belief Profiles with Health and Opinion-Leader Covariates". Health Communication. 29 (5): 483–493. doi:10.1080/10410236.2013.768475. ISSN   1041-0236. PMC   4062443 . PMID   24111749.
  5. ↑ Willoughby, Jessica Fitts; Noar, Seth M. (2022-06-03). "Fifteen Years after a 10-year Retrospective: The State of Health Mass Mediated Campaigns". Journal of Health Communication. 27 (6): 362–374. doi:10.1080/10810730.2022.2110627. ISSN   1081-0730.
  6. ↑ McCormack, L., Sheridan, S., Lewis, M., Boudewyns, V., Melvin, C. L., Kistler, C., and Lohr, K. N. (2013). Communication and dissemination strategies to facilitate the use of health-related evidence. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
  7. ↑ Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communications Monographs, 59(4), 329-349.
  8. ↑ Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Communications Monographs, 61(2), 113-134.

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