International Affective Picture System

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The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) is a database of pictures designed to provide a standardized set of pictures for studying emotion and attention [1] that has been widely used in psychological research. [2] The IAPS was developed by the National Institute of Mental Health Center for Emotion and Attention at the University of Florida. In 2005, the IAPS comprised 956 color photographs ranging from everyday objects and scenes − such as household furniture and landscapes − to extremely rare or exciting scenes − such as mutilated bodies and erotic nudes.

Contents

Normative Ratings

It is the essential property of the IAPS that the stimulus set is accompanied by a detailed list of average ratings of the emotions elicited by each picture. This shall enable other researchers to select stimuli eliciting a specific range of emotions for their experiments when using the IAPS. The process of establishing such average ratings for a stimulus set is also referred to as standardization by psychologists.

The normative rating procedure for the IAPS is based on the assumption that emotional assessments can be accounted for by the three dimensions of valence, arousal and dominance. [3] Thus, participants taking part in the studies that are conducted to standardize the IAPS are asked to rate how pleasant/unpleasant, how calm/excited and how controlled/in-control they felt when looking at each picture. A graphic rating scale, the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), [4] is used for this rating procedure.

Original norms

The official normative ratings for the IAPS pictures were obtained from a sample of 100 college students (50 women, 50 men, presumably predominantly US-American) who each rated 16 sets of 60 pictures. The rating was carried out in groups using paper-and-pencil versions of the SAMs. Pictures were presented for 6 seconds each; 15 seconds were given to rate the picture. /dominance. [1] Average valence, arousal and dominance ratings are available for the overall sample, men, and women.

Normative ratings were also obtained from children ages 7–9 years, 10-12, and 13-14. The rating procedure for children was mildly adapted; among other modifications, children were tested in classrooms, given instructions in a more child-friendly language, and they were allotted 20 seconds to rate each picture instead of 15. [1]

Norms from further studies

Researchers from institutes other than the National Institute of Mental Health have also conducted studies to establish normative ratings for the IAPS in languages other than English and cultures other than US-American culture including Hungarian, [5] German, [6] Portuguese, [7] Indian, [8] and Spanish. [9] One of these studies also included older participants (63–77 years). [6]

Use of the IAPS pictures

IAPS pictures have been used in studies using a variety of psychophysiological measurements such as fMRI, [10] EEG, [11] magnetoencephalography, [12] skin conductance, [13] heart rate, [14] and electromyography. [15]

The IAPS has also been used in the psychology laboratory to experimentally manipulate anxiety and induce negative affect, enabling researchers to investigate the impacts of negative affect on cognitive performance. [16] [17]

Access

To maintain novelty and efficacy of the stimulus set, the IAPS images themselves are typically not shown in any media outlet or publications. The IAPS may be received and used upon request by members of recognized, degree-granting, academic, not-for-profit research or educational institutions. [18]

Alternatives

Image sets

A group of researchers at Harvard University has published an alternative set of images that they claim to be comparable to the IAPS in 2016. [19] The OASIS image database consists of 900 images that have been rated on valence and arousal by a sample of US-Americans recruited via amazon mechanical Turk. As opposed to the IAPS, all OASIS images are in the public domain. A detailed description is provided on the first author's homepage.

Other alternative databases of photographic images of scenes with various kinds of affective content include:

Other mediums

The authors of the IAPS have developed a number of non-image alternatives for eliciting emotion such as the Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW) [31] and International Affective Digitized Sounds (IADS). [32]

Related Research Articles

Psychophysiology is the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes. While psychophysiology was a general broad field of research in the 1960s and 1970s, it has now become quite specialized, based on methods, topic of studies and scientific traditions. Methods vary as combinations of electrophysiological methods, neuroimaging, and neurochemistry. Topics have branched into subspecializations such as social, sport, cognitive, cardiovascular, clinical and other branches of psychophysiology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arousal</span> State of being awoken

Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. It involves activation of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) in the brain, which mediates wakefulness, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system, leading to increased heart rate and blood pressure and a condition of sensory alertness, desire, mobility, and reactivity.

The orienting response (OR), also called orienting reflex, is an organism's immediate response to a change in its environment, when that change is not sudden enough to elicit the startle reflex. The phenomenon was first described by Russian physiologist Ivan Sechenov in his 1863 book Reflexes of the Brain, and the term was coined by Ivan Pavlov, who also referred to it as the Shto takoye? reflex. The orienting response is a reaction to novel or significant stimuli. In the 1950s the orienting response was studied systematically by the Russian scientist Evgeny Sokolov, who documented the phenomenon called "habituation", referring to a gradual "familiarity effect" and reduction of the orienting response with repeated stimulus presentations.

Affective neuroscience is the study of how the brain processes emotions. This field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. The basis of emotions and what emotions are remains an issue of debate within the field of affective neuroscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affect (psychology)</span> Experience of feeling or emotion

Affect, in psychology, is the underlying experience of feeling, emotion, attachment, or mood. It encompasses a wide range of emotional states and can be positive or negative. Affect is a fundamental aspect of human experience and plays a central role in many psychological theories and studies. It can be understood as a combination of three components: emotion, mood, and affectivity. In psychology, the term affect is often used interchangeably with several related terms and concepts, though each term may have slightly different nuances. These terms encompass: emotion, feeling, mood, emotional state, sentiment, affective state, emotional response, affective reactivity, disposition. Researchers and psychologists may employ specific terms based on their focus and the context of their work.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frisson</span> Psychophysiological response to rewarding auditory or visual stimuli

Frisson, also known as aesthetic chills or psychogenic shivers, is a psychophysiological response to rewarding stimuli that often induces a pleasurable or otherwise positively-valenced affective state and transient paresthesia, sometimes along with piloerection and mydriasis . The sensation commonly occurs as a mildly to moderately pleasurable emotional response to music with skin tingling; piloerection and pupil dilation not necessarily occurring in all cases.

The self-regulation of emotion or emotion regulation is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed. It can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions. The self-regulation of emotion belongs to the broader set of emotion regulation processes, which includes both the regulation of one's own feelings and the regulation of other people's feelings.

Emotional responsivity is the ability to acknowledge an affective stimuli by exhibiting emotion. It is a sharp change of emotion according to a person's emotional state. Increased emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating more response to a stimulus. Reduced emotional responsivity refers to demonstrating less response to a stimulus. Any response exhibited after exposure to the stimulus, whether it is appropriate or not, would be considered as an emotional response. Although emotional responsivity applies to nonclinical populations, it is more typically associated with individuals with schizophrenia and autism.

Priming is a concept in psychology to describe how exposure to one stimulus may influence a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention. The priming effect is the positive or negative effect of a rapidly presented stimulus on the processing of a second stimulus that appears shortly after. Generally speaking, the generation of priming effect depends on the existence of some positive or negative relationship between priming and target stimuli. For example, the word nurse might be recognized more quickly following the word doctor than following the word bread. Priming can be perceptual, associative, repetitive, positive, negative, affective, semantic, or conceptual. Priming effects involve word recognition, semantic processing, attention, unconscious processing, and many other issues, and are related to differences in various writing systems. How quickly this effect occurs is contested; some researchers claim that priming effects are almost instantaneous.

Emotion can have a powerful effect on humans and animals. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disgust</span> Basic emotion

Disgust is an emotional response of rejection or revulsion to something potentially contagious or something considered offensive, distasteful or unpleasant. In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin wrote that disgust is a sensation that refers to something revolting. Disgust is experienced primarily in relation to the sense of taste, and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling by sense of smell, touch, or vision. Musically sensitive people may even be disgusted by the cacophony of inharmonious sounds. Research has continually proven a relationship between disgust and anxiety disorders such as arachnophobia, blood-injection-injury type phobias, and contamination fear related obsessive–compulsive disorder.

Subliminal stimuli are any sensory stimuli below an individual's threshold for conscious perception, in contrast to supraliminal stimuli. Visual stimuli may be quickly flashed before an individual can process them, or flashed and then masked to interrupt processing. Audio stimuli may be played below audible volumes or masked by other stimuli.

Many experiments have been done to find out how the brain interprets stimuli and how animals develop fear responses. The emotion, fear, has been hard-wired into almost every individual, due to its vital role in the survival of the individual. Researchers have found that fear is established unconsciously and that the amygdala is involved with fear conditioning.

Emotion perception refers to the capacities and abilities of recognizing and identifying emotions in others, in addition to biological and physiological processes involved. Emotions are typically viewed as having three components: subjective experience, physical changes, and cognitive appraisal; emotion perception is the ability to make accurate decisions about another's subjective experience by interpreting their physical changes through sensory systems responsible for converting these observed changes into mental representations. The ability to perceive emotion is believed to be both innate and subject to environmental influence and is also a critical component in social interactions. How emotion is experienced and interpreted depends on how it is perceived. Likewise, how emotion is perceived is dependent on past experiences and interpretations. Emotion can be accurately perceived in humans. Emotions can be perceived visually, audibly, through smell and also through bodily sensations and this process is believed to be different from the perception of non-emotional material.

Motivational intensity is defined as the strength of the tendency to either approach a positive situation or event or to move away from a negative situation or event.

Age of acquisition is a psycholinguistic variable referring to the age at which a word is typically learned. For example, the word 'penguin' is typically learned at a younger age than the word 'albatross'. Studies in psycholinguistics suggest that age of acquisition has an effect on the speed of reading words. The findings have demonstrated that early-acquired words are processed more quickly than later-acquired words. It is a particularly strong variable in predicting the speed of picture naming. It has been generally found that words that are more frequent, shorter, more familiar and refer to concrete concepts are learned earlier than the counterparts in simple words and compound words, together with their respective lexemes. In addition, the AoA effect has been demonstrated in several languages and in bilingual speakers.

In cognitive psychology, the affect-as-information hypothesis, or 'approach', is a model of evaluative processing, postulating that affective feelings provide a source of information about objects, tasks, and decision alternatives. A goal of this approach is to understand the extent of influence that affect has on cognitive functioning. It has been proposed that affect has two major dimensions, namely affective valence and affective arousal, and in this way is an embodied source of information. Affect is thought to impact three main cognitive functions: judgement, thought processing and memory. In a variety of scenarios, the influence of affect on these processes is thought to be mediated by its effects on attention. The approach is thought to account for a wide variety of behavioural phenomena in psychology.

Affect labeling is an implicit emotional regulation strategy that can be simply described as "putting feelings into words". Specifically, it refers to the idea that explicitly labeling one's, typically negative, emotional state results in a reduction of the conscious experience, physiological response, and/or behavior resulting from that emotional state. For example, writing about a negative experience in one's journal may improve one's mood. Some other examples of affect labeling include discussing one's feelings with a therapist, complaining to friends about a negative experience, posting one's feelings on social media or acknowledging the scary aspects of a situation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EmojiGrid</span> Affective self-report tool

The EmojiGrid is an affective self-report tool consisting of a rectangular grid that is labelled with emojis. It is trademark of Kikkoman. The facial expressions of the emoji labels vary from disliking via neutral to liking along the x-axis, and gradually increase in intensity along the y-axis. To report their affective appraisal of a given stimulus, users mark the location inside the grid that best represents their impression. The EmojiGrid can either be used as a paper or computer-based response tool. The images needed to implement the EmojiGrid are freely available from the OSF repository.

The Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) is a non-verbal pictorial questionnaire that directly measures a person's affect and feelings in response to exposure to an object or an event, such as a picture. It is widely used by scientists to determine emotional reactions of participants during psychology experiments due to its non-verbal nature. It was developed by Margaret Bradley and Peter Lang, and consists of three rows of pictograms, each of which uses a stylized diagram to show a five point scale in each of the three domain: valence, arousal and dominance.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., & Cuthbert, B.N. (2008). International affective picture System (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical Report A-8. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
  2. ↑ Bradley, M. M. & Lang, P. J. (2007). The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) in the study of emotion and attention. In J. A. Coan and J. J. B. Allen (Eds.), Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment (pp. 29-46). Oxford University Press
  3. ↑ Osgood, Charles E.; Suci, George J.; Tannenbaum, Percy H. (1957). The measurement of meaning . Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
  4. ↑ Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., and Cuthbert, B. N. (1997). International affective picture system (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings.
  5. ↑ Deak, A.; Csenski, L.; Revesz, G. (2010). "Hungarian ratings for the International Affective Picture System (IAPS): A cross-cultural comparison". Empirical Text and Culture Research. 4: 90–101.
  6. 1 2 Gruehn, D.; Scheibe, S (2008). "Age-related differences in valence and arousal ratings of pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Do ratings become more extreme with age?". Behavior Research Methods. 40 (2): 512–521. doi: 10.3758/BRM.40.2.512 . PMID   18522062.
  7. ↑ Lasaitis, C; Ribeiro, R. L.; Bueno, O. F. A. (2008). "Brazilian norms for the International Affective Picture System (IAPS): comparison of the affective ratings for new stimuli between brazilian and north-american subjects". Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria. 57 (4): 270–275. doi: 10.1590/s0047-20852008000400008 .
  8. ↑ Lohani, M.; Gupta, R.; Srinivasan, N. (2013). "Cross-Cultural Evaluation of the International Affective Picture System on an Indian Sample". Psychological Studies. 58 (3): 233–241. doi:10.1007/s12646-013-0196-8. S2CID   143322053.
  9. ↑ Dufey Dominguez, M.; Fernandez Tapia, A. M.; Troncoso, R. (2011). "Adding support to cross-cultural emotional assessment: Validation of the international affective picture system in a chilean sample". Universitas Psychologica. 10 (2): 521–533. doi: 10.11144/javeriana.upsy10-2.asce .
  10. ↑ Caria, A.; Sitaram, R.; Veit, R.; Begliomini, C.; Birbaumer, N. (2010). "Volitional control of anterior insula activity modulates the response to aversive stimuli. A real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging study". Biological Psychiatry. 68 (5): 425–32. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.020. PMID   20570245. S2CID   11086274.
  11. ↑ Hajcak, G.; Dennis, T. A. (2009). "Brain potentials during affective picture processing in children". Biological Psychology. 80 (3): 333–338. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.11.006. PMC   2656402 . PMID   19103249.
  12. ↑ Styliadis, C.; Ioannides, A. A.; Bamidis, P. D.; Papadelis, C. (2015). "Distinct cerebellar lobules process arousal, valence and their interaction in parallel following a temporal hierarchy". NeuroImage. 110: 149–161. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.02.006. PMID   25665964. S2CID   6472426.
  13. ↑ D'Hondt, F.; Lassonde, M.; Collignon, O.; Dubarry, A.-S.; Robert, M.; Rigoulot, S.; Sequeira, H. (2010). "Early brain-body impact of emotional arousal". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 4: 33. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2010.00033 . PMC   2859881 . PMID   20428514.
  14. ↑ Bradley, M. M.; Codispoti, M.; Cuthbert, B. N.; Lang, P. J. (2001). "Emotion and motivation I: defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing". Emotion. 1 (3): 276–298. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.276. PMID   12934687.
  15. ↑ Baglioni, C.; Lombardo, C.; Bux, E.; Hansen, S.; Salveta, C.; Biello, S.; Espie, C. A. (2010). "Psychophysiological reactivity to sleep-related emotional stimuli in primary insomnia". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 48 (6): 467–475. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.01.008. PMID   20227678.
  16. ↑ Wilson, K. M.; de Joux, N. R.; Finkbeiner, K. M.; Russell, P. N.; Helton, W. S. (2016). "The effect of task-relevant and irrelevant anxiety-provoking stimuli on response inhibition" (PDF). Consciousness and Cognition. 42: 358–365. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.04.011. PMID   27149179. S2CID   32158391.
  17. ↑ Ossowski, U.; Malinen, S.; Helton, W. S. (2011). "The effects of emotional stimuli on target detection: indirect and direct resource costs". Consciousness and Cognition. 20 (4): 1649–1658. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.015. PMID   21978909. S2CID   21433770.
  18. ↑ Bradley, Margaret M; Lang, Peter J. "IAPS request form" . Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  19. ↑ Kurdi, Benedek; Lozano, Shayn; Banaji, Mahzarin R. (2017-04-01). "Introducing the Open Affective Standardized Image Set (OASIS)". Behavior Research Methods. 49 (2): 457–470. doi: 10.3758/s13428-016-0715-3 . ISSN   1554-3528. PMID   26907748.
  20. ↑ Szymanska, Monika; Comte, Alexandre; Tio, Grégory; Vidal, Chrystelle; Monnin, Julie; Smith, Carmela Chateau; Nezelof, Sylvie; Vulliez-Coady, Lauriane (January 2019). "The Besançon affective picture set-adult (BAPS-Adult): Development and validation". Psychiatry Research. 271: 31–38. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.005. PMID   30458318. S2CID   53278185.
  21. ↑ Moyal, Natali; Henik, Avishai; Anholt, Gideon E. (26 September 2018). "Categorized Affective Pictures Database (CAP-D)". Journal of Cognition. 1 (1): 41. doi: 10.5334/joc.47 . PMC   6634429 . PMID   31517214.
  22. ↑ Weierich, Mariann R.; Kleshchova, Olena; Rieder, Jenna K.; Reilly, Danielle M. (12 November 2019). "The Complex Affective Scene Set (COMPASS): Solving the Social Content Problem in Affective Visual Stimulus Sets". Collabra: Psychology. 5 (1): 53. doi: 10.1525/collabra.256 .
  23. ↑ Haberkamp, Anke; Glombiewski, Julia Anna; Schmidt, Filipp; Barke, Antonia (February 2017). "The DIsgust-RelaTed-Images (DIRTI) database: Validation of a novel standardized set of disgust pictures". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 89: 86–94. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.010. PMID   27914317.
  24. ↑ Carretié, L.; Tapia, M.; López-Martín, S.; Albert, J. (1 July 2019). "EmoMadrid: An emotional pictures database for affect research". Motivation and Emotion. 43 (6): 929–939. doi:10.1007/s11031-019-09780-y. hdl: 10486/709892 . S2CID   198616593.
  25. ↑ Dan-Glauser, Elise S.; Scherer, Klaus R. (24 March 2011). "The Geneva affective picture database (GAPED): a new 730-picture database focusing on valence and normative significance". Behavior Research Methods. 43 (2): 468–477. doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0064-1 . PMID   21431997.
  26. ↑ Kim, Hanjoo; Lu, Xin; Costa, Michael; Kandemir, Baris; Adams, Reginald B.; Li, Jia; Wang, James Z.; Newman, Michelle G. (March 2018). "Development and validation of Image Stimuli for Emotion Elicitation (ISEE): A novel affective pictorial system with test-retest repeatability". Psychiatry Research. 261: 414–420. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.068. PMC   6510029 . PMID   29353766.
  27. ↑ Merlhiot, Gaëtan; Mermillod, Martial; Le Pennec, Jean-Luc; Mondillon, Laurie; Gruebner, Oliver (8 August 2018). "Introduction and validation of the Natural Disasters Picture System (NDPS)". PLOS ONE. 13 (8): e0201942. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1301942M. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201942 . PMC   6082542 . PMID   30089170.
  28. ↑ Marchewka, Artur; Żurawski, Łukasz; Jednoróg, Katarzyna; Grabowska, Anna (31 August 2013). "The Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS): Introduction to a novel, standardized, wide-range, high-quality, realistic picture database". Behavior Research Methods. 46 (2): 596–610. doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0379-1. PMC   4030128 . PMID   23996831.
  29. ↑ Michałowski, Jarosław M.; Droździel, Dawid; Matuszewski, Jacek; Koziejowski, Wojtek; Jednoróg, Katarzyna; Marchewka, Artur (9 September 2016). "The Set of Fear Inducing Pictures (SFIP): Development and validation in fearful and nonfearful individuals". Behavior Research Methods. 49 (4): 1407–1419. doi: 10.3758/s13428-016-0797-y . PMC   5541104 . PMID   27613018.
  30. ↑ Crone, Damien L.; Bode, Stefan; Murawski, Carsten; Laham, Simon M. (24 January 2018). "The Socio-Moral Image Database (SMID): A novel stimulus set for the study of social, moral and affective processes". PLOS ONE. 13 (1): e0190954. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1390954C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190954 . PMC   5783374 . PMID   29364985.
  31. ↑ Bradley, M; Lang, P (1999). "Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW): Instruction manual and affective ratings" (PDF).{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  32. ↑ Bradley, M; Lang, P (1999). "The International affective digitized sounds (IADS): stimuli, instruction manual and affective ratings".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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