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 Iraq |  Jordan |
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Relations between neighbours Iraq and Jordan have historically been close. [1] The two states were created after World War I from former Ottoman dominions by way of a secret bilateral agreement between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the French Third Republic. Several efforts to unify the countries have been pursued over the last century. Jordan has an embassy in Baghdad and Iraq has an embassy in Amman.
As the two original Hashemite monarchies established in Western Asia by Britain following World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Jordan and Iraq had initially maintained close relations based on family ties. This ended when the Hashemite royal family in Iraq was overthrown and killed by dissident military officers in the 1958 Iraqi coup d'état. In the years that followed the two régimes became hostile to one another. But by the late 1970s, Jordan and Iraq built a bilateral alliance that lasted through the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
In 1979 Iraq initiated contacts aimed at closer alignment at a time when the newly established President Saddam Hussein was seeking Arab allies, perhaps to provide for at least some level of transnational support and inter-Arab legitimacy for his régime. More important for the Jordanians, however, were the economic pay-offs of such an alliance, as Iraq could provide economic support and oil supplies that the kingdom desperately needed.
As the new alliance began to solidify in 1980, Saddam Hussein's military forces invaded Iran and Hussein of Jordan immediately backed Iraq against the revolutionary Islamist regime in Iran. The Hashemite government viewed Iran as a potential threat not from military expansion, but as a supporter and living example of Islamist revolutionary militancy against conservative pro-Western monarchies. For King Hussein, Iran was a threat not just to his régime's security directly, but also indirectly in so far as it threatened the Persian Gulf Arab monarchies oil which Jordan was partially reliant for aid. Throughout the 1980-88 Iran-Iraq war, Jordan supported Iraq politically and especially economically. Indeed, Jordan's port of Aqaba and its overland trucking routes became Iraq's main supply line throughout the eight years of that war. In return, Jordan received oil from Iraq at prices far below market value.
To expand on these political-economic linkages, Jordan helped create the Arab Cooperation Council (ACC) in 1989, in the immediate aftermath of the Iran-Iraq war. The ACC alliance of Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and Yemen was meant to facilitate capital and labor flows between members while also allowing them to act as a fairly formidable lobbying bloc within inter-Arab politics in their mutual efforts to renegotiate their debt terms with the Persian Gulf Arab monarchies. Despite strenuous Jordanian efforts to prevent it, that alliance evaporated in the heat of the Persian Gulf War.
The shift in Iraq–Jordan relations became apparent in August 1995, when Jordan granted political asylum to two Iraqi defectors. King Hussein of Jordan also openly criticized Iraqi policies on national television on 23 August 1995. However, majority of Jordanians supported Saddam Hussein. Western countries considered the change in Jordan's policy on Iraq as a means to further isolate Saddam Hussein and eventually weaken his leadership.
Despite periodic crises of confidence and lingering Iraqi resentment over Jordan's close ties with Saddam Hussein, the two countries forged deep ties. In the face of repeated attacks and threats, Jordan has maintained a strong diplomatic presence in Baghdad.
The economic impact of the Iraq crisis in Jordan has been mixed. Jordan has benefited greatly from serving as a "gateway" to Iraq for governments, aid workers, contractors, and businesspeople, the real estate and banking sectors are booming, and it stands to reap more benefits from increased trade and transport should the situation in Iraq improve. However, with the fall of Saddam, Jordan lost the sizable oil subsidies and customary shipments it received from Iraq. [2] One of Jordan's principal economic interests in the new Iraq is securing future energy assistance.
Jordan can claim only modest influence over developments in Iraq. The kingdom does have notable intelligence capabilities vis-à-vis Iraq, and it reportedly helped the United States track down and kill Al-Qaeda in Iraq leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. Although some Jordanians highlight cross-border tribal and family connections with Iraqi Sunni Arabs, they pale in comparison to those of Iran, Turkey, and Syria. Jordan's most significant means of influence is its hosting of a large and ever-changing Iraqi expatriate community, mostly of Sunni Arab origin. [2]
Jordanian leaders worry that Iraq is becoming a haven for terrorist groups, a fear dramatically heightened by the November 2005 suicide bombings in Amman. Jordan also has an interest in the development of Iraq and is anxious about the growing Iranian involvement in Iraqi politics, and more broadly increasing Iranian and Shiite influence in the region. [2]
In 2005, the case of Raed Mansour al-Banna, a Jordanian suicide bomber who blew himself up in Hillah, Iraq strained relations between the two countries. After Banna's family gave him a heroic funeral in Jordan, thousands of Iraqi Shia protested, and the two countries recalled their respective ambassadors. [3]
On 24 December 2012, Iraq and Jordan agreed to extend an oil pipeline to the Red Sea city of Aqaba for the export of Iraqi crude. The new pipeline would be capable of pumping one million barrels per day. Jordanian Prime Minister Abdullah al-Nsur stated that Jordan is important for Iraq's trade and the export of its oil. Iraq also agreed to implement a 2009 agreement to establish a free trade zone between the two countries and increase the capacity of its gas pipeline to secure Jordan's Iraqi natural gas needs. Jordan relies on imports for 95 percent of its energy needs. A rise in fuel prices by up to 53 percent in November prompted violent protests in which three people were killed and more than 70 injured. Iraq, which sits on the region's third largest oil reserves after Saudi Arabia and Iran at 115 billion barrels, hopes the move will increase and diversify its exports. Jordan imports 10,000 barrels of Iraqi oil per day at well below the global market value, and has agreed to increase that amount to 15,000 barrels. Iraq delivered oil to Jordan for preferential prices under the U.N. oil-for-food program during the rule of Saddam Hussein. [4] [5]
Iraq's contribution to the world's oil supply will significantly increase to more than 8 million barrels a day by 2035, outstripping its current output, according to the International Energy Agency. In its "Iraq Energy Outlook" report, the IEA said the country's oil and gas reserves would be key to its own future, as well as playing an essential role in stabilizing the global energy markets. It is expected that Iraq will dominate oil supply over the coming decades and will become the world's largest oil exporter after Russia by the 2030s. [6]
In 2013, trade between Iraq and Jordan has been facilitated by Israel, which allows goods to be transported by truck via the Jordan River Crossing near Beit She'an. The goods are usually taken to Haifa Port and shipped from there to Turkey and other countries, as an alternative to Syria. [7]
In 2014, the land trade route between Iraq and Jordan was severely affected by the deteriorating security situation in Anbar province linking the two countries. ISIS had seized large parts of the province and imposed high taxes on the trucks passing through. [8] Before the instability in the province, 70% of the exports originating from Jordanian Free Zones went to the Iraqi market, [9] but after the sudden takeover of Mosul and other parts of Iraq in June 2014 the trade decreased by 19% for the period of June–September 2014 compared to a year before. [10]
The economy of Iraq is dominated by the oil sector, which has provided about 99.7% of foreign exchange earnings during its modern history. As of 2021, the oil sector provides about 92% of foreign exchange earnings. Iraq's hitherto agrarian economy underwent rapid development following the 14 July Revolution (1958) which overthrew the Hashemite Iraqi monarchy. It had become the third-largest economy in the Middle East by 1980. This occurred in part because of the Iraqi government's successful industrialization and infrastructure development initiatives in the 1970s, which included irrigation projects, railway and highway construction, and rural electrification.
Saddam Hussein was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and later its Iraqi regional branch. Ideologically, he espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, while the policies and political ideas he championed are collectively known as Saddamism.
Hussein bin Talal was King of Jordan from 11 August 1952 until his death in 1999. As a member of the Hashemite dynasty, the royal family of Jordan since 1921, Hussein was a 40th-generation direct descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
The Hashemite Arab Federation was a short-lived confederation that lasted from 14 February to 2 August 1958, between the Hashemite kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan. Although the name implies a federal structure, it was de facto a confederation.
The dynamic between the League of Arab States and the Islamic Republic of Iran has been ambivalent, owing to the latter's varying bilateral conduct with each country of the former. Iran is located on the easternmost frontier of the Arab League, which consists of 22 Arab countries and spans the bulk of the Middle East and North Africa, of which Iran is also a part. The Arab League's population is dominated by ethnic Arabs, whereas Iran's population is dominated by ethnic Persians; and while both sides have Islam as a common religion, their sects differ, with Sunnis constituting the majority in the Arab League and Shias constituting the majority in Iran. Since Iran's Islamic Revolution in 1979, the country's Shia theocracy has attempted to assert itself as the legitimate religious and political leadership of all Muslims, contesting a status that has generally been understood as belonging to Sunni-majority Saudi Arabia, where the cities of Mecca and Medina are located. This animosity, manifested in the Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict, has greatly exacerbated the Shia–Sunni divide throughout the Muslim world.
Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia and a core country in the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. With a population of over 46 million, it is the 35th-most populous country. A federal parliamentary republic, it consists of 18 governorates. Iraq is bordered by Turkey to the north, Saudi Arabia to the south, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. The capital and largest city is Baghdad. Iraqi people are diverse; mostly Arabs, as well as Kurds, Turkmen, Yazidis, Assyrians, Armenians, Mandaeans, Persians and Shabakis with similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Most Iraqis are Muslims – minority faiths include Christianity, Yazidism, Zoroastrianism, Mandaeism, Yarsanism and Judaism. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish; others also recognized in specific regions are Turkish, Suret, and Armenian.
Iraq–Russia relations are the bilateral relations between Iraq and Russia and, prior to Russia's independence, between Iraq and the Soviet Union. The current Iraqi Ambassador to Russia is Haidar Mansour Hadi Al-Athari who has been serving his second post in Moscow since June 2024.
Iraq–Israel relations refer to the bilateral ties between the State of Israel and the Republic of Iraq. Due to Iraq's non-recognition of Israel as a legitimate state since the latter's establishment in 1948, the two countries have not had any formal diplomatic relations. The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq was a part of the Arab coalition that declared war on and invaded Israel shortly after its establishment, sparking the First–Arab Israeli War, and the two states have since then been in a continuous state of hostilities. Iraqi forces also participated in the Third Arab–Israeli War and the Fourth Arab–Israeli War in 1967 and 1973, respectively.
Iraq–Saudi relations are the bilateral and diplomatic relations between the Republic of Iraq and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Both sovereign states share the Iraq–Saudi Arabia border.
Iran–Iraq relations are the diplomatic and foreign relations between the two sovereign states of Iran and Iraq.
French–Iraq relations are the relations between France and Iraq. France played a major role in Iraqi secession from the Ottoman Empire and eventual freedom from British colonial status. The Franco-Iraqi relationship is often defined by conflict and peace, with France supporting Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War, supporting intervention in Iraq in Operation Desert Storm, and opposing the 2003 U.S. Invasion of Iraq. As of 2004, Iraq maintains an embassy in Paris and France maintains an embassy in Baghdad and a consulate general in Erbil.
Egypt–Iraq relations have varied over time, alternating from cooperation to rivalry over time. The modern relationship between Iraq and Egypt soured in 1977 when the two nations broke relations with each other following Egypt's peace accords with Israel. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an Arab League summit that condemned and ostracized Egypt for accepting the Camp David accords. However, Egypt's strong material and diplomatic support for Iraq in its war with Iran led to warmer relations and numerous contacts between senior officials, despite the continued absence of ambassadorial-level representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for the restoration of Egypt's "natural role" among Arab countries. In January 1984, Iraq successfully led Arab efforts within the OIC to restore Egypt's membership.
After World War I, Iraq passed from the failing Ottoman Empire to British control. Kingdom of Iraq was established under the British Mandate in 1932. In the 14 July Revolution of 1958, the king was deposed and the Republic of Iraq was declared. In 1963, the Ba'ath Party staged a coup d'état and was in turn toppled by another coup in the same year, but managed to retake power in 1968. Saddam Hussein took power in 1979 and ruled Iraq for the remainder of the century, during the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s, the Invasion of Kuwait and the Gulf War of 1990 to 1991 and the UN sanction during the 1990s. Saddam was removed from power in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Ba'athist Iraq, officially the Iraqi Republic (1968–1992) and later the Republic of Iraq (1992–2003), was the Iraqi state between 1968 and 2003 under the rule of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. This period began with high economic growth, but ended with the country facing severe levels of socio-political isolation and economic stagnation. By the late 1990s, the average annual income had decreased drastically due to a combination of external and internal factors. UNSC sanctions against Iraq, in particular, were widely criticized for negatively impacting the country's quality of life, prompting the establishment of the Oil-for-Food Programme. The Ba'athist period formally came to an end with the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the Ba'ath Party has since been indefinitely banned across the country.
Iraqi nationalism is a form of nationalism that asserts the belief that Iraqis form a nation and promotes the cultural unity of Iraqis of different ethnoreligious groups such as Mesopotamian Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Yazidis, Mandeans, Shabaks and Yarsans.
Relations between the Arab Republic of Iraq and State of Palestine have historically been close, with Palestinian Liberation Organization supported by the Ba'athist Iraqi regime during the second half of the 20th century, and vice versa, Iraqi Ba'athist regime supported by PLO leadership during the Gulf War. The State of Palestine has an embassy and consulate in Baghdad and Erbil accordingly, but Iraq doesn't have an embassy in Palestine.
Faisal II was the last King of Iraq. He reigned from 4 April 1939 until July 1958, when he was killed during the 14 July Revolution. This regicide marked the end of the thirty-seven-year-old Hashemite monarchy in Iraq, which then became a republic.
Economy in Kurdistan Region consists of the autonomous economy in Kurdistan region in northern Iraq. The Kurdistan region's economy is dominated by the oil industry, agriculture, manufacturing and tourism.
The Islamic Republic of Iran and Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan share a long but complicated relationship which has, at times, been tense and unstable. Jordan has an embassy in Tehran.
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