James Marcia

Last updated
James Marcia
Born (1937-02-10) February 10, 1937 (age 87)
Cleveland, Ohio
Alma mater Ohio State University
OccupationPsychologist

James E. Marcia (born February 10, 1937) is a clinical and developmental psychologist. He taught at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada [1] and the State University of New York at Buffalo in Upstate New York. [2]

Contents

He is also active in clinical private practice, clinical psychology supervision, community consultation, and international clinical-developmental research and teaching. [3] [4]

Early life and education

Marcia was born in a middle-class family on February 10, 1937, in Cleveland, Ohio, and spent his childhood in Columbus, Ohio. He grew up practicing tennis, drama, speech, and music. Marcia explored different subjects including history, English, and philosophy, and graduated in 1959 with a bachelor's degree in psychology from Wittenberg University in Springfield, Ohio. He also received a master's and a doctoral degree in 1965 from Ohio State University in clinical psychology. [5] [6]

Marcia began his professional career in 1965 as a professor and director of the psychology clinic at the University at Buffalo. In 1972 he began work at Simon Fraser University where he taught for 30 years before retiring. At Simon Fraser University, he established their first clinical psychology center, offering both training and supervision opportunities for graduate students as well as clinical services to the public. Although research, teaching, and community psychologyi were major commitments, he also attended the University of British Columbia School of Music from 1995 to 1998 for performance in trombone.[ citation needed ] After his retirement, Dr. Marcia continues to maintain a private clinical practice. He is also a very very dedicated musician and plays the trombone with symphony orchestras and bands in Vancouver.[ citation needed ]

Ego-identity status

James Marcia is perhaps best known for his extensive research and writings on psychological development, with specific attention focused on adolescent psychosocial development and lifespan identity development. Erik H. Erikson had suggested that the normative conflict occurring in adolescence is the opposition between identity achievement and role confusion, which is Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development. [7] Marcia elaborated on Erikson's proposal in a citation classic [8] by suggesting this stage consists neither of identity resolution nor identity confusion as Erikson claimed, but is better understood as the extent to which one has both explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains including politics, occupation, religion, intimate relationships, friendships, and gender roles. 'Two crucial areas in which the adolescent must make such commitments are ideology and occupation'. [9]

His theory of identity achievement states that there are two distinct parts contributing to the achievement of adolescent identity: a time of choosing or crisis, and a commitment. He defined a crisis as a time of upheaval where old values or choices are being reexamined and new alternatives are explored - 'times during adolescence when the individual seems to be actively involved in choosing among alternative occupations and beliefs'. [10] Both exploration and commitment are the two processes that contribute to differences in outcome during an Identity crisis. That is, whether or not (the extent to which) one explores identity alternatives and whether or not one makes a commitment to chosen alternatives.

The four identity statuses

Marcia developed the Identity Status Interview, a method of semi-structured interview for psychological identity research, that investigates an individual's extent of exploration and commitment across different life areas. Evaluating the material provided in this interview by using a scoring manual developed by Marcia and colleagues yields four possible outcomes. [11]

The four identity statuses he distinguished were: foreclosure, identity diffusion, moratorium, and identity achievement.

Foreclosure

"The foreclosure status is when a commitment is made without exploring alternatives. Often these commitments are based on parental ideas and beliefs that are accepted without question".[ citation needed ] As Marcia himself put it, "the individual about to become a Methodist, Republican farmer like his Methodist, Republican farmer father, with little or no thought in the matter, certainly cannot be said to have "achieved" an identity, in spite of his commitment". [12]

Adolescents may foreclose on the handed-down identity willingly or under pressure. The case of "negative-identity" occurs when adolescents adopt an identity in direct opposition to a prescribed identity. Marcia saw the evidence for the endorsement of authoritarian values by foreclosures as fully commensurate with a view of them as becoming the alter egos of their parents. [13]

Marcia stressed that once an identity crisis has been experienced, returning to the foreclosure status was no longer a possibility. [14]

Identity diffusion

Adolescents who struggle with identity development may avoid exploration and commitments, leading to identity diffusion. This least mature identity status indicates a lack of exploration and commitments in crucial life areas. This state, often accompanied by existential dread and confusion (identity crisis), can result in social isolation. [15]

Marcia suggested that those with identity diffusion "do not experience much anxiety because there is little in which they are invested. As they begin to care more...they move to the moratorium status, or they become so disturbed that they are diagnosed schizophrenic"; [16] or may end up adopting a negative and self-destructive identity-role. [17]

Moratorium

Identity moratorium is the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis, whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined, but who are actively exploring alternatives.[ citation needed ] Marcia notes that "moratoriums...report experiencing more anxiety than do students in any other status...The world for them is not, currently, a highly predictable place; they are vitally engaged in a struggle to make it so". [16]

Despite such anxiety, the postmodern trend has been for more people to spend more time in the status, a phenomenon Gail Sheehy termed Provisional Adulthood. [18] Similarly, Jeffrey Arnett's Emerging Adulthood has, as a major facet of it, identity exploration, which shares many attributes with identity moratorium. [19]

Identity achievement

Once a crisis has been experienced and worked through, Marcia considered, "a likely progression would be from diffusion through moratorium to identity achievement". [20] The latter is thus the status of individuals who have typically experienced a crisis, undergone identity explorations, and made commitments. Marcia found some evidence to support his "theoretical description of Students who have achieved an identity as having developed an internal, as opposed to external, locus of self-definition". [21]

Identity status shifts

Throughout the life cycle identity status, shifts will occur. When identity status change occurs (in late adolescence and young adulthood) the change is more than twice as likely to be progressive as opposed to regressive. [22] Longitudinally status change is most often a transition from moratorium to identity achievement. [22]

Transitions are often inspired by disequilibrium in identity. Marcia [23] outlines how status change occurs as it relates to disequilibrium. Identity crisis comes in the form of later adult life cycle stages and various life events. Depending on the individual, particular life events such as the death of a loved one, job loss, moving, etc. may cause disequilibrium. However, this is only true when an individual has constructed some form of identity. Diffusions are stagnant. They have not made an effort to construct an identity and therefore have no identity to reform. In the case of foreclosures, many will choose to live in an environment that is similar to their childhood experiences so that they may remain unchanged. When disequilibrium occurs in the life of foreclosures, the effects may be especially devastating.

When disequilibrium occurs a period of re-construction begins. These periods of re-construction are called the moratorium-achievement-moratorium-achievement (MAMA) cycles. [24] In each person's life, there are a minimum of three MAMA cycles, corresponding with the three remaining psychosocial stages. [23] During re-construction, a person may regress to an earlier identity status. [25] It is crucial that old constructs fall so that new ones that are more encompassing of the person's identity may be constructed. [23] In the re-construction process, there is still continuity with previous identity, however, the newer construction is broadened to include new life experiences and commitments. [25]

Applicability and criticism

While Marcia primarily focused on the late adolescent years, his theory is applicable in later adulthood, when identity crises may reoccur. One study, exploring correlations between the identity statuses of Marcia's model and social behaviors, focused on young adults ranging in age from 19 to 35. [26] People's identity status is not specifically limited to an age group. Individuals may explore elements tied to their identities throughout life, such as faith, ideology, and occupational preference to name a few.[ citation needed ]

Using Marcia's semi-structured interview approach enables research to be flexibly adapted to different cultures. There has been a good deal of cross-cultural validation of the Identity Statuses.

Critical research has suggested however that '(a) The four statuses do not operate in a developmental sequence...(b) conscious exploration is not required for and often does not occur in identity achievement, and (c) numerous studies conducted in support of the statuses focus less on developmental issues and more on classification issues (Cote 2006)'. [27]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Developmental psychology</span> Scientific study of psychological changes in humans over the course of their lives

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life. This field examines change across three major dimensions, which are physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development. Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adolescence</span> Human transition from puberty to adult

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the teenage years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier or end later. Puberty typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females. Physical growth and cognitive development can extend past the teens. Age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have not agreed upon a precise definition. Some definitions start as early as 10 and end as late 30. The World Health Organization definition officially designates an adolescent as someone between the ages of 10 and 19.

In medicine and the social sciences, a young adult is generally a person in the years following adolescence, sometimes with some overlap. Definitions and opinions on what qualifies as a young adult vary, with works such as Erik Erikson's stages of human development significantly influencing the definition of the term; generally, the term is often used to refer to adults in approximately the age range of 18 to 40 years, with some more inclusive definitions extending the definition into the early to mid 40s. The young adult stage in human development precedes middle adulthood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peer group</span> Primary group of people with similar interests, age, background, or social status

In sociology, a peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar interests (homophily), age, background, or social status. The members of this group are likely to influence the person's beliefs and behaviour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erik Erikson</span> American psychoanalyst and essayist

Erik Homburger Erikson was an American child psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He coined the phrase identity crisis.

Identity is the set of qualities, beliefs, personality traits, appearance, and/or expressions that characterize a person or a group.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated in the second half of the 20th century by Erik Erikson in collaboration with Joan Erikson, is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages that a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood.

In psychology, identity crisis is a stage theory of identity development which involves the resolution of a conflict over eight stages of life. The term was coined by German psychologist Erik Erikson.

Emerging adulthood, early adulthood, or post-adolescence refers to a phase of the life span between late adolescence and early adulthood, as initially proposed by Jeffrey Arnett in a 2000 article from the American Psychologist. It primarily describes people living in developed countries, but it is also experienced by young adults in wealthy urban families in the Global South. The term describes young adults who do not have children, do not live in their own homes, and/or do not have sufficient income to become fully independent. Arnett suggests emerging adulthood is the distinct period between 20 and 29 years of age where young adults become more independent and explore various life possibilities.

Identity formation, also called identity development or identity construction, is a complex process in which humans develop a clear and unique view of themselves and of their identity.

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Stage-crisis view is a theory of adult development that was established by Daniel Levinson. Although largely influenced by the work of Erik Erikson, Levinson sought to create a broader theory that would encompass all aspects of adult development as opposed to just the psychosocial. This theory is characterized by both definitive eras as well as transition phases, whose purpose is to facilitate a smooth transition out of one era and into the next. According to his theory, various developmental tasks must be mastered as one progresses through each era; pre-adulthood, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. Crises are also experienced throughout the lifecycle and occur when one become burdened by either internal or external factors, such as during the midlife crisis that occurs during the midlife transition from early adulthood to middle adulthood.

In psychology, maturity can be operationally defined as the level of psychological functioning one can attain, after which the level of psychological functioning no longer increases much with age. However, beyond this, integration is also an aspect of maturation, such as the integration of personality, where the behavioral patterns, motives and other traits of a person are gradually brought together, to work together effectively with little to no conflict between them, as an organized whole, e.g., bringing a person's various motives together into a purpose in life. Case in point: adult development and maturity theories include the purpose in life concept, in which maturity emphasizes a clear comprehension of life's purpose, directedness, and intentionality, which contributes to the feeling that life is meaningful.

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The theory of narrative identity postulates that individuals form an identity by integrating their life experiences into an internalized, evolving story of the self that provides the individual with a sense of unity and purpose in life. This life narrative integrates one's reconstructed past, perceived present, and imagined future. Furthermore, this narrative is a story – it has characters, episodes, imagery, a setting, plots, and themes and often follows the traditional model of a story, having a beginning, middle, and an end (denouement). Narrative identity is the focus of interdisciplinary research, with deep roots in psychology.

Phebe K. Cramer was an American clinical psychologist who was Professor of Psychology, Emerita at Williams College. She was known for her research on defense mechanisms, body image, and narcissism, and for her creation of a manual for coding defense mechanisms for purposes of psychological testing and personality assessment. Cramer was the 2014 recipient of the Bruno Klopfer Award from the Society for Personality Assessment for lifetime achievement in Personality Psychology.

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Political identity development focuses on the process by which an individual decides on how they define themselves. Political identity development is the process how an individual decides on their identity around political issues. Political identity is not limited to partisan identification, but deals with many aspects of how individuals define their political beliefs, attitudes, issue preferences and how an individual relates to their political environment.

References

  1. ↑ Shaw, Robert B. (May 2013). Created for Significance. Author Solutions, Incorporated. ISBN   9781449794736 . Retrieved 1 July 2015.
  2. ↑ https://ubir.buffalo.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10477/21890/1970.vol1.no3.pdf?sequence=3 [ bare URL PDF ]
  3. ↑ Beale, James; Wilson, Marcia (2013), "Sport Psychology", Applied Psychology: Research, Training and Practice, London: SAGE Publications, Ltd, pp. 154–165, doi:10.4135/9781446274750.n11, ISBN   978-0-85702-835-8 , retrieved 2021-06-23
  4. ↑ "James Marcia - Identity Status" (PDF).
  5. ↑ Harmons, L. N. (n.d.). James Marcia - American Board of Assessment Psychology. https://www.assessmentpsychologyboard.org/edp/pdf/James_Marcia.pdf .
  6. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-07-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  7. ↑ Kroger, Jane (2017-02-27). "Identity Development in Adolescence and Adulthood". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.54. ISBN   978-0-19-023655-7 . Retrieved 2021-05-05.
  8. ↑ Marcia, J. E., (1966), Development and validation of ego identity status, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, pp. 551-558
  9. ↑ James E. Marcia, "Ego-Identity Status", in Michael Argyle, Social Encounters (Penguin 1973) p. 340
  10. ↑ Marcia, "Ego-Identity Status" p. 340
  11. ↑ Marcia, James E. (1966). "Identity Status Interview". PsycTESTS Dataset. doi:10.1037/t07432-000 . Retrieved 2021-06-22.
  12. ↑ Marcia, "Ego-status Identity" p. 340
  13. ↑ Marcia, "Ego-Identity Status" p. 353
  14. ↑ Marcia, "Ego-Identity Status" p. 341
  15. ↑ J. E. Cote/C. G. Levine, Identity Formation, Agency and Culture (2002) p. 19
  16. 1 2 Marcia, "Ego-Identity Status" p. 352
  17. ↑ Ann Birch, Developmental Psychology (London 1997) p. 206
  18. ↑ Gail Sheehy, New Passages (London 1996) p. 43 and p. 10
  19. ↑ Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen (December 2007). "Emerging Adulthood: What Is It, and What Is It Good For?". Child Development Perspectives. 1 (2): 68–73. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00016.x. ISSN   1750-8592.
  20. ↑ Marcia, "Ego-identity Status" p. 341
  21. ↑ Marcia, "Ego-identity Status" p. 350
  22. 1 2 Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. E. (2010). Identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 683-698.
  23. 1 2 3 Marcia, J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of Stressful Transitions Across the Lifespan (pp. 19-34). doi : 10.1007/978-1-4419-0748-6_2
  24. ↑ Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of Stressful Transitions Across the Lifespan (pp. 19-34). doi : 10.1007/978-1-4419-0748-6_2
  25. 1 2 Marcia, J. E., Simon, F. U. (2003). Treading fearlessly: A commentary on personal persistence, identity development, and suicide. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68, 131-138.
  26. ↑ Hardy, S. A., & Kisling, J. W. (2006). Identity statuses and prosocial behaviors in young adulthood: A brief report. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 6(4), 363-369.
  27. ↑ Thomas W. Miller, Handbook of Stressful Transitions Across the Lifespan (2009) p. 93

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