Lebanese amber

Tragichrysa ovoruptora , a green lacewing larvae

Lebanese amber is fossilized resin found in Lebanon and its surroundings. It dates back approximately 130-125 million years to the Barremian of the Early Cretaceous. It formed on what was then the northern coast of Gondwana, believed to be a tropical or subtropical zone in a temperate or hot climate. ^[1] It is the oldest source of amber with a significant number of inclusions. Up to 300 sources of Lebanese amber have been recovered and 17 of them are important sources of organic inclusions, which are the oldest of their kind. The inclusions help to document Cretaceous fauna and flora.

Tyruschrysa melqart , a green lacewing larvae

Origins

Lebanese amber can be found in Lebanon and neighboring areas of the Levant. Up to 300 different sources of amber had been discovered by 2010. The amber was deposited in the Cretaceous era and is rich in fossil synclusions. 19 of the discovered sources are rich in inclusions from the Early Cretaceous. All of them are located in Lebanon, which makes it the largest source of inclusion from that period. ^[2]

History

Aside from possible early reports of Phoenician usage, the oldest reports of Lebanese amber are from 19th-century accounts, these tended only to be incidental due to Lebanese amber's gemological quality in comparison to Baltic amber, and the local people were more interested in the associated lignite as a source of fuel. ^[3]

Properties

Lebanese amber can be found in a vast variety of colors such as yellow, orange, dark red or iridescent jet black. Rarely in white, milky or cream. The variation of color tone is caused by the air contained in the amber. The density of Lebanese amber is 1.054 g/cm3. It tends to be fragile and easy to damage. ^[4]

Inclusions

Inclusions are quite common for Lebanese amber, which is rich in organisms of the Barremian epoch. Next to Jordanian amber, Lebanese amber is the oldest amber to have yielded significant invertebrate inclusions alongside the Wealden amber from the equivalently aged Wessex Formation of the UK, which is much less productive. Organisms preserved in Lebanese amber are dated back to the period prior to the angiosperm radiation, which was the period of massive extinction of old groups of arthropods, as well as the emergence of the new ones, some of which co-evolved with angiosperms. The organisms are preserved in good condition and shape. ^[3] The diversity and number of co-inclusions help to draw conclusions about mutual relations and co-existence. ^[5]

Paleobiota

After Poinar & Milki (2001), ^[1] Maksoud & Azar (2020) ^[6] and subsequent studies.

Bacteria

Taxon	Authority	Year described	Notes	Images
Streptomyces sp.

Fungi

Taxon	Authority	Year described	Notes	Images
Chytridiales indet.
Mucorales indet.

Plants

Taxon	Authority	Year described	Notes	Images
Agathis levantensis	Poinar & Milki	2001	An araucarian tree responsible for the production of amber.

Hexapoda

Taxon	Authority	Year described	Notes	Images
Archaeatropos	Azar & Nel	2004	An archaeatropid psocodean. [7]
Arthropleona indet.			A springtail.
Asphaeropsocites	Azar et al.	2010	A sphaeropsocid psocodean. [8]
Aphelopus	Olmi	1998	A dryinid wasp.
Archiaustroconops	Szadziewski	1996	A ceratopogonid fly.
Archiculicoides	Szadziewski	1996	A ceratopogonid fly.
Archisciada	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A sciadocerid fly.
Atelestites	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	An empidid fly.
Austroconops	Szadziewski	1996	A ceratopogonid fly.
Avenaphora	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A dolichopodid fly.
Banoberotha	Whalley	1980	A beaded lacewing.
Bcharreglaris	Azar & Nel	2004	An archaeatropid psocodean. [7]
Bernaea	Schlee	1970	A whitefly.
Blattodea indet.			A cockroach. [8]
Chomeromyia	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A fly.
Conovirilus	McCafferty	1997	A leptophlebiid mayfly.
Corethrella	Szadziewski	1995	A corethrellid biting midge.
Cretaceomachilis	Sturm & Poinar,	1998	A meinertellid bristletail.
Cretacetrocta	Hakim & Azar	2024	A pachytroctid psocodean. [7]
Cretapsychoda	Azar et al.	1999A	A psychodid fly.
Enicocephalinus	Azar et al.	1999B	An enicocephalid.
Exitelothrips	zur Strassen	1973	A scudderothripid thrips.
Fossileptoconops	Szadziewski	1996	A ceratopogonid fly.
Glaesoconis	Whalley	1980	A dustywing.
Heidea	Schlee	1970	A whitefly.
Incurvariites	Whalley	1978	A incurvariid moth.
Jankotejacoccus	Szwedo, Azar & Sendi	2025	A jankotejacoccid scale insect. [9]
Jezzinothrips	zur Strassen	1973	A jezzinothripid thrips.
Lebambromyia	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A phorid fly.
Lebanaphis	Heie & Azar	2000	A tajmyraphidid hemipteran.
Lebania	Podenas et al.	2001	A tipulid crane fly.
Lebanoconops	Szadziewski	1996	A ceratopogonid fly.
Lebanoculicoides	Szadziewski	1996	A ceratopogonid fly.
Leptoconops	Borkent	2000	A ceratopogonid fly.
Libaneuphoris	Azar, Huang, Cai & Nel	2015	A libanophorid pscocodean.
Libanobythus	Prentice et al.	1996	A scolobythid hemipteran.
Libanochlites	Brundin	1976	A non-biting midge.
Libanoculex	Azar, Nel, Huang & Engel	2023	A chaoborid fly, previously interpreted as a mosquito. [10]
Libanoglaris	Azar & Nel	2004	An archaeatropid psocodean. [7]
Libanophlebotomus	Azar et al.	1999A	A psychodid fly.
Libanomphientomum	Choufani, Azar & Nel	2011	A electrentomoid psocodean. [7]
Libanopsychoda	Azar et al.	1999A	A psychodid fly.
Libanopsyllipsocus	Azar & Nel	2011	A psyllipsocid psocodean. [7]
Libanorhinus	Kuschel & Poinar	1993	A nemonychid weevil.
Libanosemidalis	Azar et al.	2000	A dustywing.
Lonchopterites	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A lonchopterid fly.
Lonchopteromorpha	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A lonchopterid fly.
Rhadinolabis	Engel, Ortega-Blanco & Azar	2011	An earwig. [8]
Setoglaris	Azar & Nel	2004	An archaeatropid psocodean. [7]
Lebanotermes	Engel, Azar & Nel in Engel et al.	2011	A termite. [8]
Megarostrum	Heie & Azar	2000	A tajmyraphidid hemipteran.
Mesobolbomyia	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A rhagionid fly.
Mundopoides	Fennah	1987	A cixiid.
Neocomothrips	zur Strassen	1973	A neocomothripid thrips.
Paleochrysopilus	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	A rhagionid fly.
Paleopsychoda	Azar et al.	1999A	A psychodid fly.
Palaeosiamoglaris	Azar, Huang & Nel	2017	A prionoglarid psocodean. [7]
Parasabatinca	Whalley	1978	A micropterigid moth.
Paraberotha	Whalley	1980	A beaded lacewing.
Paramesopsocus	Azar, Hajar, Indary & Nel	2008	A electrentomid psocodean. [7]
Phaetempis	Grimaldi & Cumming	1999	An empidid fly.
Phlebotomites	Hennig	1972	A phlebotomid fly.
Progonothrips	zur Strassen	1973	A rhetinothripid thrips.
Protoculicoides	Szadziewski	1996	A ceratopogonid fly.
Protopsychoda	Azar et al.	1999A	A psychodid fly.
Psocodea sp. 1			A juvenile psocodean. [7]
Raptorapax	Petrolevičius, Azar & Nel	2010	A rhachiberotid neuropteran. [8]
Rhetinothrips	zur Strassen	1973	A rhetinothripid thrip.
Scaphothrips	zur Strassen	1973	A scaphothripid thrips.
Scudderothrips	zur Strassen	1973	A scudderothripid thrips.
Sphaeropsocites	Grimaldi & Engel	2006	A sphaeropsocid psocodean. [7]
Trichinites	Hennig	1970	An empidid fly.
Yuripopovina	Azar et al.	2011	A yuripopovinid hemipteran. [8]

Arachnida

Taxon	Authority	Year described	Notes	Images
Acari indet.			Various free-living mites.
Anystidae sp.			An anystid mite.
Archaeobuthus	Lourenço	2001	An archaeobuthid scorpion. [8]
Erythraeoidea indet.			A erythraeid mite.
Erythraeoidea indet.			Leptus sp.?
Lebansegestria	Wunderlich	2008	A segestriid spider.
Lebanoecobius	Wunderlich	2004	A oecobiid spider.
Linyphiidae sp.			A linyphiid spider.
Microsegestria	Wunderlich & Milki	2004	A segestriid spider.
Neoliodes	Arillo, Subías, Chaves Da Rocha & Azar	2019	A neoliodid mite.
Oonopidae sp.			An oonopid spider.
Palaeomicromenneus	(Penney)	2003	A deinopid spider.
Plumorsolus	Wunderlich	2008	A plumorsolid spider.
Pseudoscorpiones indet.			A pseudoscorpion.
Zamilia	Wunderlich	2008	A oecobiid spider.

Other invertebrates

Taxon	Authority	Year described	Notes	Images
Chilopoda indet.
Cretaciomermis	Poinar	2001	A nematode.
Electroxenus	Nguyen Duy-Jacquemin & Azar	2004	A polyxenid millipede.
Heleidomermis	Poinar, Acra & Acra	1994	A mermithid nematode.
Libanoxenus	Nguyen Duy-Jacquemin & Azar	2004	A polyxenid millipede.
Pupilloidea indet.			A possible pupillid snail.

Vertebrates

Taxon	Authority	Year described	Notes	Images
Aves indet.			A single feather and the only known bird remains of the biota.
Baabdasaurus	Arnolds et al.	2002	A reptile.

References

1. Raif Milki, George Poinar, Lebanese Amber: The Oldest Insect Ecosystem in Fossilized Resin, 2001. ISBN   978-0-87071-533-4
2. David I. Green, David Penney, Fossils in Amber: Remarkable Snapshots of Prehistoric Forest Life, Siri Scientific Press, 2011
3. Penney, David (2010). "Chapter 14: Lebanese Amber". Biodiversity of fossils in amber from the major world deposits. Siri Scientific Press. ISBN   978-0-9558636-4-6. OCLC   904772774.
4. Andrew Ross, Amber, Harvard University Press, 1998
5. George Poinar, Life in amber, Stanford University Press, 1992
6. Maksoud, Sibelle; Azar, Dany (2020-04-30). "Lebanese amber: latest updates". Palaeoentomology. 3 (2): 125–155. Bibcode:2020Plegy...3..125M. doi:10.11646/palaeoentomology.3.2.2. ISSN   2624-2834.
7. Marina, Hakim; Dany, Azar (2024). "Contributions to the Palaeobiodiversity of Psocodea ('Psocoptera') from Lebanese Amber: A Review". Fossil Studies. 2 (3). doi: 10.3390/fo (inactive 1 July 2025). ISSN   2813-6284. Archived from the original on 2024-12-03. Retrieved 2025-06-15.
8. Azar, D. (2012). Lebanese amber: a “Guinness Book of Records”. Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis. Studia ad Didacticam Biologiae Pertinentia, 2(I), 44-60.
9. Peter, Vršanský; Hemen, Sendi; Júlia, Kotulová; Jacek, Szwedo; Martina, Havelcová; Helena, Palková; Lucia, Vršanská; Jakub, Sakala; L'ubica, Puškelová; Marián, Golej; Adrian, Biroň; Daniel, Peyrot; Donald, Quicke; Didier, Néraudeau; Pavel, Uher (2025-02-07). "Jurassic Park approached: a coccid from Kimmeridgian cheirolepidiacean Aintourine Lebanese amber". National Science Review. 12 (3). doi:10.1093/n. ISSN   2095-5138. Archived from the original on 2025-05-05. Retrieved 2025-07-12.
10. Harbach, Ralph E. (2024-03-12). "Libanoculex intermedius is not a mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae): It is a chaoborid (Chaoboridae)". Zootaxa. 5424 (1): 139–144. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5424.1.9. ISSN   1175-5334. PMID   38480294. Archived from the original on 9 August 2024. Retrieved 9 August 2024.