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Abraham Lincoln was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War and succeeded in preserving the Union,abolishing slavery,bolstering the federal government,and modernizing the U.S. economy.
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist,widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity,but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum mechanics are the two pillars of modern physics. His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2,which arises from relativity theory,has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation". His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics,and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with "genius".
The American Revolutionary War,also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence,secured American independence from Great Britain. Fighting began on April 19,1775,followed by the Lee Resolution on July 2,1776,and the Declaration of Independence on July 4,1776. The American Patriots were supported by the Kingdom of France and,to a lesser extent,the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Empire,in a conflict taking place in North America,the Caribbean,and the Atlantic Ocean.
Benjamin Franklin was an American polymath who was active as a writer,scientist,inventor,statesman,diplomat,printer,publisher,and political philosopher. Among the leading intellectuals of his time,Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States,a drafter and signer of the United States Declaration of Independence,and the first United States Postmaster General.
Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain,opening the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of the Americas. His expeditions were the first known European contact with the Caribbean,Central America,and South America.
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was an American military officer and statesman who served as the 34th president of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II,he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved the five-star rank of General of the Army. He planned and supervised the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–1943 as well as the invasion of Normandy (D-Day) from the Western Front in 1944–1945.
Edgar Allan Poe was an American writer,poet,editor,and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories,particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States,and of American literature. Poe was one of the country's earliest practitioners of the short story,and considered to be the inventor of the detective fiction genre,as well as a significant contributor to the emerging genre of science fiction. Poe is the first well-known American writer to earn a living through writing alone,resulting in a financially difficult life and career.
Frederick Douglass was an American social reformer,abolitionist,orator,writer,and statesman. After escaping from slavery in Maryland,he became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York,becoming famous for his oratory and incisive antislavery writings. Accordingly,he was described by abolitionists in his time as a living counterexample to slaveholders' arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens. Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave. It was in response to this disbelief that Douglass wrote his first autobiography.
George Washington was an American military officer,statesman,and Founding Father who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Appointed by the Continental Congress as commander of the Continental Army,Washington led the Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War and served as the president of the Constitutional Convention of 1787,which created the Constitution of the United States and the American federal government. Washington has been called the "Father of his Country" for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the country.
Martin Luther King Jr. was an American Baptist minister and activist,one of the most prominent leaders in the civil rights movement from 1955 until his assassination in 1968. An African American church leader and the son of early civil rights activist and minister Martin Luther King Sr.,King advanced civil rights for people of color in the United States through nonviolence and civil disobedience. Inspired by his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism of Mahatma Gandhi,he led targeted,nonviolent resistance against Jim Crow laws and other forms of discrimination.
Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist,philosopher,cognitive scientist,historical essayist,social critic,and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics",Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. He is a Laureate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and an Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),and is the author of more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics,war,politics,and mass media. Ideologically,he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism.
Thomas Jefferson was an American statesman,diplomat,lawyer,architect,philosopher,and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was previously the second vice president under John Adams and the first United States secretary of state under George Washington. The principal author of the Declaration of Independence,Jefferson was a proponent of democracy,republicanism,and individual rights,motivating American colonists to break from the Kingdom of Great Britain and form a new nation. He produced formative documents and decisions at state,national,and international levels.
The War of 1812 was fought by the United States of America and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in British North America,with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It began when the US declared war on 18 June 1812 and,although peace terms were agreed upon in the December 1814 Treaty of Ghent,did not officially end until the peace treaty was ratified by Congress on 17 February 1815.
Josiah Willard Gibbs was an American scientist who made significant theoretical contributions to physics,chemistry,and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous inductive science. Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann,he created statistical mechanics,explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician,he invented modern vector calculus.
Ansel Easton Adams was an American landscape photographer and environmentalist known for his black-and-white images of the American West. He helped found Group f/64,an association of photographers advocating "pure" photography which favored sharp focus and the use of the full tonal range of a photograph. He and Fred Archer developed an exacting system of image-making called the Zone System,a method of achieving a desired final print through a deeply technical understanding of how tonal range is recorded and developed during exposure,negative development,and printing. The resulting clarity and depth of such images characterized his photography.
William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was an American sociologist,socialist,historian,and Pan-Africanist civil rights activist. Born in Great Barrington,Massachusetts,Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community,and after completing graduate work at the University of Berlin and Harvard University,where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate,he became a professor of history,sociology,and economics at Atlanta University. Du Bois was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
Samuel Langhorne Clemens,known by his pen name Mark Twain,was an American writer,humorist,entrepreneur,publisher,and lecturer. He was praised as the "greatest humorist the United States has produced",and William Faulkner called him "the father of American literature". His novels include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and its sequel,Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884),the latter of which has often been called the "Great American Novel". Twain also wrote Pudd'nhead Wilson (1894) and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889).
Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th president of the United States from 1974 to 1977. He was the only president never to have been elected to the office of president or vice president. He previously served as the leader of the Republican Party in the House of Representatives,and was appointed to be the 40th vice president in 1973. When President Richard Nixon resigned in 1974,Ford succeeded to the presidency,but was defeated for election to a full term in 1976.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy,often referred to by his initials JFK and the nickname Jack,was an American politician who served as the 35th president of the United States from 1961 until his assassination near the end of his third year in office. Kennedy was the youngest person to assume the presidency by election. He was also the youngest president at the end of his tenure. Kennedy served at the height of the Cold War,and the majority of his work as president concerned relations with the Soviet Union and Cuba. A Democrat,he represented Massachusetts in both houses of the U.S. Congress prior to his presidency.
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