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Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of nanomaterials and biological devices, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology such as biological machines. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials.
Tissue engineering is a biomedical engineering discipline that uses a combination of cells, engineering, materials methods, and suitable biochemical and physicochemical factors to restore, maintain, improve, or replace different types of biological tissues. Tissue engineering often involves the use of cells placed on tissue scaffolds in the formation of new viable tissue for a medical purpose, but is not limited to applications involving cells and tissue scaffolds. While it was once categorized as a sub-field of biomaterials, having grown in scope and importance, it can be considered as a field of its own.
Nanoid robotics, or for short, nanorobotics or nanobotics, is an emerging technology field creating machines or robots, which are called nanorobots or simply nanobots, whose components are at or near the scale of a nanometer. More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building nanorobots with devices ranging in size from 0.1 to 10 micrometres and constructed of nanoscale or molecular components. The terms nanobot, nanoid, nanite, nanomachine and nanomite have also been used to describe such devices currently under research and development.
Cell culture or tissue culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. After cells of interest have been isolated from living tissue, they can subsequently be maintained under carefully controlled conditions. They need to be kept at body temperature (37 °C) in an incubator. These conditions vary for each cell type, but generally consist of a suitable vessel with a substrate or rich medium that supplies the essential nutrients (amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals), growth factors, hormones, and gases (CO2, O2), and regulates the physio-chemical environment (pH buffer, osmotic pressure, temperature). Most cells require a surface or an artificial substrate to form an adherent culture as a monolayer (one single-cell thick), whereas others can be grown free floating in a medium as a suspension culture. This is typically facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar. Tissue culture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, with the more specific term plant tissue culture being used for plants. The lifespan of most cells is genetically determined, but some cell-culturing cells have been 'transformed' into immortal cells which will reproduce indefinitely if the optimal conditions are provided.
Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is an emerging non-invasive tomographic technique that directly detects superparamagnetic nanoparticle tracers. The technology has potential applications in diagnostic imaging and material science. Currently, it is used in medical research to measure the 3-D location and concentration of nanoparticles. Imaging does not use ionizing radiation and can produce a signal at any depth within the body. MPI was first conceived in 2001 by scientists working at the Royal Philips Research lab in Hamburg. The first system was established and reported in 2005. Since then, the technology has been advanced by academic researchers at several universities around the world. The first commercial MPI scanners have recently become available from Magnetic Insight and Bruker Biospin.
Organ printing utilizes techniques similar to conventional 3D printing where a computer model is fed into a printer that lays down successive layers of plastics or wax until a 3D object is produced. In the case of organ printing, the material being used by the printer is a biocompatible plastic. The biocompatible plastic forms a scaffold that acts as the skeleton for the organ that is being printed. As the plastic is being laid down, it is also seeded with human cells from the patient's organ that is being printed for. After printing, the organ is transferred to an incubation chamber to give the cells time to grow. After a sufficient amount of time, the organ is implanted into the patient.
Targeted drug delivery, sometimes called smart drug delivery, is a method of delivering medication to a patient in a manner that increases the concentration of the medication in some parts of the body relative to others. This means of delivery is largely founded on nanomedicine, which plans to employ nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery in order to combat the downfalls of conventional drug delivery. These nanoparticles would be loaded with drugs and targeted to specific parts of the body where there is solely diseased tissue, thereby avoiding interaction with healthy tissue. The goal of a targeted drug delivery system is to prolong, localize, target and have a protected drug interaction with the diseased tissue. The conventional drug delivery system is the absorption of the drug across a biological membrane, whereas the targeted release system releases the drug in a dosage form. The advantages to the targeted release system is the reduction in the frequency of the dosages taken by the patient, having a more uniform effect of the drug, reduction of drug side-effects, and reduced fluctuation in circulating drug levels. The disadvantage of the system is high cost, which makes productivity more difficult, and the reduced ability to adjust the dosages.
Magnetofection is a transfection method that uses magnetic fields to concentrate particles containing vectors to target cells in the body. Magnetofection has been adapted to a variety of vectors, including nucleic acids, non-viral transfection systems, and viruses. This method offers advantages such as high transfection efficiency and biocompatibility which are balanced with limitations.
Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are a class of nanoparticle that can be manipulated using magnetic fields. Such particles commonly consist of two components, a magnetic material, often iron, nickel and cobalt, and a chemical component that has functionality. While nanoparticles are smaller than 1 micrometer in diameter, the larger microbeads are 0.5–500 micrometer in diameter. Magnetic nanoparticle clusters that are composed of a number of individual magnetic nanoparticles are known as magnetic nanobeads with a diameter of 50–200 nanometers. Magnetic nanoparticle clusters are a basis for their further magnetic assembly into magnetic nanochains. The magnetic nanoparticles have been the focus of much research recently because they possess attractive properties which could see potential use in catalysis including nanomaterial-based catalysts, biomedicine and tissue specific targeting, magnetically tunable colloidal photonic crystals, microfluidics, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic particle imaging, data storage, environmental remediation, nanofluids, optical filters, defect sensor, magnetic cooling and cation sensors.
Magnet-assisted transfection is a transfection method which uses magnetic interactions to deliver DNA into target cells. Nucleic acids are associated with magnetic nanoparticles, and magnetic fields drive the nucleic acid-particle complexes into target cells, where the nucleic acids are released.
Preclinical imaging is the visualization of living animals for research purposes, such as drug development. Imaging modalities have long been crucial to the researcher in observing changes, either at the organ, tissue, cell, or molecular level, in animals responding to physiological or environmental changes. Imaging modalities that are non-invasive and in vivo have become especially important to study animal models longitudinally. Broadly speaking, these imaging systems can be categorized into primarily morphological/anatomical and primarily molecular imaging techniques. Techniques such as high-frequency micro-ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) are usually used for anatomical imaging, while optical imaging, positron emission tomography (PET), and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) are usually used for molecular visualizations.
Three dimensional (3D) bioprinting is the use of 3D printing–like techniques to combine cells, growth factors, bio-inks, and biomaterials to fabricate functional structures that were traditionally used for tissue engineering applications but in recent times have seen increased interest in other applications such as biosensing, and environmental remediation. Generally, 3D bioprinting uses a layer-by-layer method to deposit materials known as bio-inks to create tissue-like structures that are later used in various medical and tissue engineering fields. 3D bioprinting covers a broad range of bioprinting techniques and biomaterials. Currently, bioprinting can be used to print tissue and organ models to help research drugs and potential treatments. Nonetheless, translation of bioprinted living cellular constructs into clinical application is met with several issues due to the complexity and cell number necessary to create functional organs. However, innovations span from bioprinting of extracellular matrix to mixing cells with hydrogels deposited layer by layer to produce the desired tissue. In addition, 3D bioprinting has begun to incorporate the printing of scaffolds which can be used to regenerate joints and ligaments. Apart from these, 3D bioprinting has recently been used in environmental remediation applications, including the fabrication of functional biofilms that host functional microorganisms that can facilitate pollutant removal.
3D cell culturing by Magnetic LevitationMethod (MLM) is the culturing of 3D cell tissue by inducing cells treated with magnetic nanoparticle assemblies in spatially varying magnetic fields. It uses neodymium magnetic drivers and promotes cell-to-cell interactions by levitating the cells up to the air/liquid interface of a standard petri dish. The magnetic nanoparticle assemblies consist of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, and the polymer polylysine. 3D cell culturing is scalable, with the capability of culturing 500 cells up to millions of cells, or from a single dish to high-throughput low-volume systems. Once magnetized cultures are generated, they are used as the building block material, or the "ink" for the magnetic 3D bioprinting process.
A 3D cell culture is an artificially created environment in which biological cells are permitted to grow or interact with their surroundings in all three dimensions. Unlike 2D environments, a 3D cell culture allows cells in vitro to grow in all directions, similar to how they would in vivo. These three-dimensional cultures are usually grown in bioreactors, small capsules in which the cells can grow into spheroids, or 3D cell colonies. Approximately 300 spheroids are usually cultured per bioreactor.
Organovo Holdings, Inc. is an early-stage medical laboratory and research company which designs and develops functional, three dimensional human tissue for medical research and therapeutic applications. Organovo was established in 2007 and is headquartered in San Diego, California. The company uses its internally developed NovoGen MMX Bioprinter for 3D bioprinting.
Bio-inks are materials used to produce engineered/artificial live tissue using 3D printing. These inks are mostly composed of the cells that are being used, but are often used in tandem with additional materials that envelope the cells. The combination of cells and usually biopolymer gels are defined as a bio-ink. They must meet certain characteristics, including such as rheological, mechanical, biofunctional and biocompatibility properties, among others. Using bio-inks provides a high reproducibility and precise control over the fabricated constructs in an automated manner. These inks are considered as one of the most advanced tools for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM).
Levitation based inertial sensing is a new and rapidly growing technique for measuring linear acceleration, rotation and orientation of a body. Based on this technique, inertial sensors such as accelerometers and gyroscopes, enables ultra-sensitive inertial sensing. For example, the world's best accelerometer used in the LISA Pathfinder in-flight experiment is based on a levitation system which reaches a sensitivity of and noise of .
Microgravity bioprinting is the utilization of 3D bioprinting techniques under microgravity conditions to fabricate highly complex, functional tissue and organ structures. The zero gravity environment circumvents some of the current limitations of bioprinting on Earth including magnetic field disruption and biostructure retention during the printing process. Microgravity bioprinting is one of the initial steps to advancing in space exploration and colonization while furthering the possibilities of regenerative medicine.
Bioprinting drug delivery is a method for producing drug delivery vehicles. It uses three-dimensional printing of biomaterials via additive manufacturing. Such vehicles are biocompatible, tissue-specific hydrogels or implantable devices. 3D bioprinting prints cells and biological molecules to form tissues, organs, or biological materials in a scaffold-free manner that mimics living human tissue. The technique allows targeted disease treatments with scalable and complex geometry.
Magnetic nanoparticle drug delivery is the use of external or internal magnets to increase the accumulation of therapeutic elements contained in nanoparticles to fight pathologies in specific parts of the body. It has been applied in cancer treatments, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes. Scientific researches revealed that magnetic drug delivery can be made increasingly useful in clinical settings.
References
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- ↑ Haisler WL, Timm DM, Gage JA, Tseng H, Killian TC, Souza GR (October 2013). "Three-dimensional cell culturing by magnetic levitation". Nature Protocols. 8 (10): 1940–9. doi:10.1038/nprot.2013.125. PMID 24030442. S2CID 24247462.
- ↑ Almeida, Duarte; Sanjuan-Alberte, Paola; Silva, João C.; Ferreira, Frederico Castelo (2023-08-23). "3D (bio)printing of magnetic hydrogels: Formulation and applications in tissue engineering". International Journal of Bioprinting. 10 (1): 0965. doi: 10.36922/ijb.0965 . ISSN 2424-7723.
- ↑ Friedrich J, Seidel C, Ebner R, Kunz-Schughart LA (2009). "Spheroid-based drug screen: considerations and practical approach". Nature Protocols. 4 (3): 309–24. doi:10.1038/nprot.2008.226. PMID 19214182. S2CID 21783074.
- ↑ Seiler AE, Spielmann H (June 2011). "The validated embryonic stem cell test to predict embryotoxicity in vitro". Nature Protocols. 6 (7): 961–78. doi:10.1038/nprot.2011.348. PMID 21720311. S2CID 5643556.
- ↑ Daquinag AC, Souza GR, Kolonin MG (May 2013). "Adipose tissue engineering in three-dimensional levitation tissue culture system based on magnetic nanoparticles" (PDF). Tissue Engineering. Part C, Methods. 19 (5): 336–44. doi:10.1089/ten.tec.2012.0198. PMC 3603558 . PMID 23017116. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2014-01-11.
- ↑ Tseng H, Gage JA, Raphael RM, Moore RH, Killian TC, Grande-Allen KJ, Souza GR (September 2013). "Assembly of a three-dimensional multitype bronchiole coculture model using magnetic levitation" (PDF). Tissue Engineering. Part C, Methods. 19 (9): 665–75. doi:10.1089/ten.tec.2012.0157. hdl: 1911/70947 . PMID 23301612. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2014-01-10.
- ↑ Tseng H, Balaoing LR, Grigoryan B, Raphael RM, Killian TC, Souza GR, Grande-Allen KJ (January 2014). "A three-dimensional co-culture model of the aortic valve using magnetic levitation". Acta Biomaterialia. 10 (1): 173–82. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.09.003. PMC 10593146 . PMID 24036238.
- ↑ Tseng H, Gage JA, Raphael RM, Moore RH, Killian TC, Grande-Allen KJ, Souza GR (September 2013). "Assembly of a three-dimensional multitype bronchiole coculture model using magnetic levitation" (PDF). Tissue Engineering. Part C, Methods. 19 (9): 665–75. doi:10.1089/ten.tec.2012.0157. hdl: 1911/70947 . PMID 23301612. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2014-01-10.
- ↑ Tseng H, Gage JA, Raphael RM, Moore RH, Killian TC, Grande-Allen KJ, Souza GR (September 2013). "Assembly of a three-dimensional multitype bronchiole coculture model using magnetic levitation" (PDF). Tissue Engineering. Part C, Methods. 19 (9): 665–75. doi:10.1089/ten.tec.2012.0157. hdl: 1911/70947 . PMID 23301612. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2014-01-10.
- ↑ Timm DM, Chen J, Sing D, Gage JA, Haisler WL, Neeley SK, et al. (October 2013). "A high-throughput three-dimensional cell migration assay for toxicity screening with mobile device-based macroscopic image analysis". Scientific Reports. 3: 3000. Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E3000T. doi:10.1038/srep03000. PMC 3801146 . PMID 24141454.
- ↑ Mishriki S, Abdel Fattah AR, Kammann T, Sahu RP, Geng F, Puri IK (2019). "Rapid Magnetic 3D Printing of Cellular Structures with MCF-7 Cell Inks". Research. 2019: 9854593. doi:10.34133/2019/9854593. PMC 6750075 . PMID 31549098.
- ↑ Gwathmey JK, Tsaioun K, Hajjar RJ (June 2009). "Cardionomics: a new integrative approach for screening cardiotoxicity of drug candidates". Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology. 5 (6): 647–60. doi:10.1517/17425250902932915. PMID 19442031. S2CID 37441896.
