Mashetani (Devils) is a play written in 1971 by Tanzanian playwright Ebrahim Hussein. Mashetani was written in Kiswahili and takes place in Tanzania shortly after the political independence. The play centers around the relationship of the characters Juma and Kitaru. The play is four acts. Mashetani has some absurdist elements, including a play within the play and a dream sequence. Hussein also adds descriptions in the stage directions which give the play a more abstract, surreal impression. In Swahili, shetani (singular) is the word for an East African spirit. These spirits are mostly malevolent and appear as distorted figures. The play has been translated to English by Joshua Williams (Oxford University Press: 2021 forthcoming).
Act one opens on Juma and Kitaru out for a walk. They stop in front of a baobab tree and begin a performance of 'The Devil and Man'. Juma plays the Devil and Kitaru, the man. The rest of the act is performed with the added layer of the Devil (Juma) and Kitaru (Man), until the very end when Juma breaks character to reconcile with Kitaru after the dark subject matter scares them. The Devil transforms into a bird, and flaunts other tricks, to convince Man of his supernatural superiority. The Devil then insists Man express the fear, and other emotions, Man feels in his heart—on his face. The Devil wants to see his effect on Man. The Devil explains that if you wear the emotions other people desire on your face, even if they contrast with those in your heart, they will eventually merge. The Devil then demands Man approach him. After several attempts, Man approaches and bows in reverence, and The Devil is immediately pleased and begins to laugh, becoming violent. He then transforms into a "gentle, meek, and humble man", keep in mind he is still spiritually masked as The Devil. He then starts to grin (in pain), then laughs inaudibly. The Devil then commands Man to repeatedly say the devilish word "gashalazeritwas" (unclear in meaning), however, it has a very powerful effect on Man. As The Devil repeats his command, it slowly tortures Man by drawing blood and breaking his organs. This results in The Man fainting from the pain while The Devil grins. The Devil speaks to Man on the bitterness of birth; he faints again. Lights out. The Man wakes up much later, huddled under the baobab tree. He can hear The Devil but cannot see him; The Devil taunts him with laughter. He reveals he has transformed himself into the wind. Man wants The Devil to fight him, he wants to kill The Devil. They argue for a while and The Devil agrees to reveal himself under the conditions that he gets to make three requests, the Man obliges. The Devil reappears and states his first request, "Have you ever heard of someone who slaughtered himself?” Two, that Man celebrates his death before he kills him, and three, that Man chooses how they celebrate. Man decides on a waltz. The pair happily waltz and drink wine. Suddenly, The Devil offers Man the knife in which he kills him. With every stab to the ribs, The Devil laughs harder until he is dead. The Man observes the corpse and reconciles with his actions. He then sings a song under the baobab tree. Man begins to monologue about the previous events and how they altered him. It is at the end of this monologue that Man is transformed back into Kitaru and exits the stage. Juma appears after, trying to reconcile with Kitaru. He calls for him, but Kitaru does not respond. Juma exits the stage. Blackout.
-
Act 2
The entirety of Act Two is performed in the dark, with fog. There are small bursts of light, often red but not always. The act takes place inside of Kitaru's mind, therefore his head must be placed on stage somehow (picture, projection, etc.). There is laughter throughout the act that is supposed to drown out the actors, and they must compete with it—later resulting in a harsh silence.
Scene One
Inside Kitaru's house, Mama Kitaru iron's clothes. Juma arrives looking for Kitaru. Mama Kitaru explains that he is not in, however, the two of them converse about how hard both the men in their families work. Mama Kitaru explains how overworked she feels. Later, Juma and Kitaru converse in his room about classes and the pros and cons of attending university. After Juma offers to go to the cinema, Kitaru declines his offer because the only film Juma wants to see is one about cowboys and "Indians". Their conversation slowly becomes an argument about the oppressed/the oppressor, Kitaru remembers the play from a few days ago. Harsh laughter is inserted throughout their argument. Baba Kitaru arrives while they argue. He shows the family his new Mercedes Benz. Their frightening laughter grows. Juma exits. Kitaru and Baba Kitaru drive off.
Scene Two
Bab Kitaru reads the newspaper, Mama Kitaru sews, and Kitaru tries to read a book but is distracted. Mfaume arrives at the top of the act. The three converse for a moment, then Baba Kitaru notices Kitaru is lost in thought. Kitaru explains the play about Devils and his infatuation with it. Kitaru then explains the sense of separation he feels with Juma, resulting in him running off stage. Baba Kitaru and Mama Kitaru discuss the incident, Mama Kitaru expresses her concern about the devil. Bab Kitaru dismisses the incident as nothing more than a headache.
Scene Three
Later, Kitaru sits in the house, thinking; Mama Kitaru enters. Kitaru explains he is thinking of a story Juma's grandmother told them the other day, the story of a devilish fish. Kitaru explains devils to his mother, she grows fearful of her son. She dismisses Kitaru's stories as myths of their culture's past. Mfaume enters and Mama Kitaru exits. Kitaru asks Mfaume if he believes in devils. Mfaume explains their hidden nature and continues with his work. Kitaru is left on stage, fearful.
Scene Four
Kitaru has been asleep for a long time. Mama and Baba Kitaru argue over which doctor will best treat him, a medical one or the witch doctor. The medical doctor arrives and dismisses Kitaru's state as neurosis and mental exhaustion, which is why he gave him sleeping pills. The doctor suggests Kitaru see a psychiatrist if his condition doesn't improve.
Act 3
Act three takes place in Juma's home. Mama Juma has a problem with Juma's attitude, yet Grandmother believes Mama Juma's arguments to be flawed. She is bitter about the wealth taken away from their family and mentions everything Juma would've had. Juma leaves right before Baba Juma comes home. The second scene takes place in a bar and centers around Juma, two waiters and two customers. Waiter one asks if the customers would like a double or single whisky, and Customer one responds defensively, assuming the waiter has just underestimated his knowledge about whisky. Customer two tries to defuse the tension by explaining the situation to Customer one, but Customer one disregards him. He then explains to Customer two that this is the African man's time and that he refuses to die a poor man. The scene ends with Juma deciding whether or not he will discuss with Kitaru, and he chooses not to.
Act 4
Act four begins with Juma visiting Kitaru's house. Juma discovers that Kitaru has been acting strange. Kitaru has been quieter than usual, sleeping for an abnormally large amount of time, and sweating profusely. He tells Juma, "...in the dream-world a person sees the truth more clearly than in real life." Kitaru reveals he has been having bad thoughts ever since rehearsing the play. He describes a dream in which he sprouted feathers that soon turned into wings. Kitaru saw the feathers as a positive until terror set in and the feathers wouldn't disappear, even when he tried picking them out. Kitaru also reveals that Juma has been present in his dreams, assuming the form of a doctor and dispersed laughter. Kitaru asks Juma if they can rehearse the play again, and after some hesitation, Juma agrees. Scene two takes place in the dark amidst the baobab tree. For this rehearsal, Kitaru demands to play the devil. Juma refuses, and the two get into a physical fight. Juma believes he and Kitaru can no longer see each other, arguing, "A person climbing a ladder and a person coming down a ladder can't shake hands." The play ends with Kitaru calling after Juma and then silence.
Characters
Devil, Man, Kitaru, Mama Kitaru (Kitaru's mother) Baba Kitaru (Kitaru's father), Mfaume (their servant), Doctor, Juma, Mama Juma (Juma's mother), Baba Juma (Juma's father), Grandmother (Juma's grandmother), waiters (x2), customers (x2).
Context
Mashetani is set in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania at the end of 1966, before the Arusha Declaration.[1] The Arusha Declaration was declared in 1967 by the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). It was called the Policy on Socialism and Self Reliance and is a Tanzanian statement of African Socialism which exhorted the ideology and practice among the country's citizens. The play takes place before the Declaration, during a time of conflict and opposing ideas, which is reflected in the title, themes and symbolism, plot, and characters of Mashetani. Throughout the play, Kitaru comes face to face with the capitalism that surrounds him, in juxtaposition to the socialist ideals with which he begins to align himself. The introduction of the play describes the impact the nearby country of Zanzibar had on the ideological conflict in Tanzania. According to the introduction, in 1964, the last Sultan of Zanzibar and the Zanzibari Government were overthrown, causing Abedi Karume and the Afro Shirazi Party to take control. Karume and the new socialist government in Zanzibar seized land from larger farm owners and gave it to the people. The families whose land was taken resettled on the East African coast in countries like Tanzania. Juma, Kitaru's friend in the play, is among the population to be displaced from Zanzibar.[1] Karume had formed a union with Julius Nyerere, the Tanganyikan president, to ensure the country that would become Tanzania would not align with the Soviet Union and become communist.
Dar es Salaam at the time was encouraging black intellectuals, especially those educated in a Western/European style to hold positions in the Tanganyikan government. But these people created a plutocracy because of how they had been educated. Kitaru's family is counted among these people.[1] Much of the conflict in and surrounding their friendship is reflective of the conflict that occurred in ideology when the Zanzibari people emigrated to East African countries. Kitaru and Juma are both struggling against old practices of capitalism and faced with impending socialist practices and views. Where Kitaru is driven by economics and politics, Juma is dealing with what he and his family lost. Similarly to how the Zanzibari and Tanganyikan peoples had to define their relationship as cohabitants, Kitaru and Juma, though friends, had to discover the meaning of their relationship throughout the play. Hussein describes the fight between Juma and Kitaru not as individual, but as a "class conflict."[1] Juma's family has lost wealth, while Kitaru's family is finding it, all on the brink of a declaration that will try to level the socioeconomic playing field through enforced socialism.
Sound is a recurring device that Hussein uses throughout the play. It's worthy noting when Hussein uses silence and when he uses laughter. The laughter is introduced in the stage directions on page 9, "The DEVIL laughs. The MAN follows along. The DEVIL stops laughing suddenly. The MAN stops laughing with him, just as suddenly. The DEVIL starts laughing again, and now his laughter is threatening. Then suddenly he is transformed: he is gentle, meek – a humble man."
Birds
There are a couple references to birds throughout the play. One significant reference occurs on page 7, when the devil says, "All right. I have changed myself into a bird. Just like that, I can be wind, and be everywhere." Another important reference takes place in act four, page 55. As Kitaru reveals his dream to Juma, he mentions the feathers he was unable to pluck from himself, "Me – I remembered – I started to feel scared. I started to pull out my feathers. But every time I pulled a feather out, others sprouted. They suffocated me. Others sprouted – bigger and stronger than the old ones. I started to get worried – really worried: was I a person or a bird?"
Cars
Cars are a symbol of status and represent newborn wealth in this play. When Baba Kitaru comes home with a new car on page 27, Mama Kitaru exclaims, "A new car! A Benz!" Baba Kitaru responds with, "Mine! Yes! My own property, the sweat off my brow." Customer one also references a car as a symbol of status in Act three, page 49, "I’m telling you, man, there’s nothing that makes me happier than seeing my pal doing well. If I see an African with a car, riding around, and a house – and I don’t mean a hut. No. When I say ‘house’, I mean a house. A civilized place – with a garden and carpets...that sort of thing. Hey, then my soul is completely happy."
The fish and the boat
Kitaru mentions a story that involves a fish and a boat on page 34, "The story of the fish. Far, far away – if you cross the seven seas – there’s a big fish. If this fish takes a breath, all the water’s gone – all the water goes in his mouth. From where he is, he can suck in any boat he wants and swallow it. The boat will just be pulled along by the current of the water – if it wants to or if it doesn’t. And this fish isn’t a fish but a devil." A boat was previously mentioned on page 26 as well, "Okay, what if the current is pulling to one side, and the captain wants the boat to go in another direction?"
Related Research Articles
The African Great Lakes nation of Tanzania dates formally from 1964, when it was formed out of the union of the much larger mainland territory of Tanganyika and the coastal archipelago of Zanzibar. The former was a colony and part of German East Africa from the 1880s to 1919’s when, under the League of Nations, it became a British mandate. It served as a British military outpost during World War II, providing financial help, munitions, and soldiers. In 1947, Tanganyika became a United Nations Trust Territory under British administration, a status it kept until its independence in 1961. The island of Zanzibar thrived as a trading hub, successively controlled by the Portuguese, the Sultanate of Oman, and then as a British protectorate by the end of the nineteenth century.
The politics of Tanzania takes place in a framework of a unitary presidential democratic republic, whereby the President of Tanzania is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The party system is dominated by the Chama Cha Mapinduzi. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
Julius Kambarage Nyerere was a Tanzanian anti-colonial activist, politician, and political theorist. He governed Tanganyika as prime minister from 1961 to 1962 and then as president from 1962 to 1964, after which he led its successor state, Tanzania, as president from 1964 to 1985. He was a founding member and chair of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) party, and of its successor Chama Cha Mapinduzi, from 1954 to 1990. Ideologically an African nationalist and African socialist, he promoted a political philosophy known as Ujamaa.
Death from laughter is a supposedly extremely rare form of death, usually resulting from either cardiac arrest or asphyxiation, that has itself been caused by a fit of laughter. Instances of death by laughter have been recorded from the times of ancient Greece to modern times.
Abeid Amani Karume was the first President of Zanzibar. He obtained this title as a result of a revolution which led to the deposing of Sir Jamshid bin Abdullah, the last reigning Sultan of Zanzibar, in January 1964. Three months later, the United Republic of Tanzania was founded, and Karume became the first Vice President of the United Republic with Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika as president of the new country. He was the father of Zanzibar's former president, Amani Abeid Karume.
Amani Abeid Karume is a Tanzanian politician, the former president of Zanzibar. He held the office from 8 November 2000 to 3 November 2010. He is the son of Zanzibar's first president, Abeid Karume, and a member of the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) party.
Man Stroke Woman is a British television comedy sketch show directed by Richard Cantor and produced by Ash Atalla and starring Amanda Abbington, Ben Crompton, Daisy Haggard, Meredith MacNeill, Nicholas Burns and Nick Frost. In addition to being broadcast on digital channel BBC Three in the United Kingdom, all the episodes were available for streaming from the BBC website. Series 2 started in January 2007 and is also available for streaming from the BBC website. All episodes are on the streaming network PlutoTV. There is no studio audience or laugh track.
Les Wanyika is a prominent band with Tanzanian and Kenyan members based in Nairobi, Kenya. It was formed in 1978 when drummer Rashid Juma, guitarist Omar Shabani, bassist Tommy Malanga, saxophonist Sijali Salum Zuwa and Phoney Mkwanyule left the Simba Wanyika Band. They were joined by guitarist John Ngereza and vocalist Issa Juma.
"The Pez Dispenser" is the 31st episode of the sitcom Seinfeld. The episode was the fourteenth episode of the show's third season. It aired on January 15, 1992. The episode was written by Larry David and was directed by Tom Cherones.
"Chuckles Bites the Dust" is an episode of the television situation comedy The Mary Tyler Moore Show which first aired on October 25, 1975. The episode's plot centers on the WJM-TV staff's reaction to the absurd death of Chuckles the Clown, an often-mentioned but seldom-seen character who starred in an eponymously titled children's show at the station. Most of the WJM-TV staff cannot help making jokes about the strange death of a strange person except for Mary, who repeatedly scolds her co-workers for disrespecting the deceased. However, during Chuckle's funeral service, Mary begins to giggle uncontrollably, much to her embarrassment. The celebrant assures her that laughing is the proper response to the life of a clown.
West of Zanzibar is a 1928 American silent film directed by Tod Browning. The screenplay concerns a vengeful stage magician named Phroso who becomes paralyzed in a brawl with a rival. The supporting cast includes Mary Nolan and Warner Baxter. The screenplay was written by Elliott Clawson, based on a play named Kongo by Charles de Vonde and Kilbourn Gordon. Walter Huston starred in the stage play and later played Phroso again in the 1932 sound film remake of the same story which was also called Kongo.
People have lived in Zanzibar for 20,000 years. History properly starts when the islands became a base for traders voyaging between the African Great Lakes, the Somali Peninsula, the Arabian peninsula, Iran, and the Indian subcontinent. Unguja offered a protected and defensible harbor, so although the archipelago had few products of value, Omanis and Yemenis settled in what became Zanzibar City as a convenient point from which to trade with towns on the Swahili Coast. They established garrisons on the islands and built the first mosques in the African Great Lakes Region.
Tanganyika was a colonial territory in East Africa which was administered by the United Kingdom in various guises from 1916 to 1961. It was initially administered under a military occupation regime. From 20 July 1922, it was formalised into a League of Nations mandate under British rule. From 1946, it was administered by the UK as a United Nations trust territory.
Operation Shed was a British plan for military intervention in Zanzibar following the 1964 Zanzibar revolution. It was one of a series of operations devised by the British to be implemented in the case of an attempt to seize power from President Abeid Karume by the radical left-wing Umma Party. Shed succeeded the earlier Operations Parthenon and Boris and was an alternative to Operation Finery. Shed would have involved an airlift of a battalion of troops to Unguja to provide support to Karume and to protect European citizens. The risk of a coup passed by 29 April 1964 and it was determined that any intervention would be opposed by Karume's forces and a Soviet training team. With this in mind Shed was modified on 9 June to an airborne assault by Royal Marine commandos from HMS Centaur, which would then be supported by the landing of a battalion and armoured cars from Kenya. The continuing presence of British and friendly nationals in Zanzibar complicated the matter and, around 23 September 1964, Shed was replaced by Plan Giralda.
The People's Republic of Zanzibar was a short-lived African state founded in 1964, consisting of the islands of the Zanzibar Archipelago. It existed for less than a year before it merged with Tanganyika to create the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which would be renamed to Tanzania in October of that year.
Tanzanian nationality law is regulated by the Constitution of Tanzania, as amended; the Tanzania Citizenship Act, and its revisions; and various international agreements to which the country is a signatory. These laws determine who is, or is eligible to be, a national of Tanzania. The legal means to acquire nationality, formal legal membership in a nation, differ from the domestic relationship of rights and obligations between a national and the nation, known as citizenship. Nationality describes the relationship of an individual to the state under international law, whereas citizenship is the domestic relationship of an individual within the nation. Commonwealth countries, including Tanzania, often use the terms nationality and citizenship as synonyms, despite recognising their legal distinction and the fact that they are regulated by different governmental administrative bodies. For much of Tanzania's history racist policy curtailed domestic rights and nationality. Tanzanian nationality is typically obtained under the principle of jus soli, i.e. by birth in the territory, or jus sanguinis, i.e. by birth in Tanzania or abroad to parents with Tanzanian nationality. It can be granted to persons with an affiliation to the country, or to a permanent resident who has lived in the country for a given period of time through naturalisation.
The Articles of Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar of 1964 is the main foundation of the Constitutions of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977 and the Zanzibar Revolutionary Government of 1984. The Articles of the Union were signed on April 22, 1964, by the Founders of the Union, Julius Nyerere and Abeid Amani Karume and agreed in 11 matters which later increased to over 22 and are the source of tension and dispute between mainland Tanzania mainland and Zanzibar. See Uamsho movement. The original Articles of Union which contain both Signatures from Nyerere and Karume are yet to be found.
Hussein Ali Mwinyi is the 8th president of Zanzibar. The son of former Tanzanian president Ali Hasan Mwinyi, he is a member of the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) political party.
Juma Duni Haji is a Tanzanian politician and former civil servant. He is the Chairperson of ACT Wazalendo. He previously served as the Deputy Chairman of the Civic United Front from 2014 to 2015.
East Germany–Zanzibar relations concerned historical foreign and bilateral relations between the German Democratic Republic and the People's Republic of Zanzibar, both of which are now former states. During the short existence of Zanzibar as an independent state, which emerged in the wake of the 1964 Zanzibar Revolution, East Germany was a key ally of the fledgling island state. East Germany initiated a number of assistance programs to Zanzibar, and established its first embassy in Africa on Zanzibar. Once Zanzibar entered into a union with Tanganyika, the issue of relations with East Germany became politically complex.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
