Maternity leave and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

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The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development provides data about OECD countries related to paid parental leave length, average pay rate and full-rate equivalent. [1] Not all countries provide mothers with a pay rate equal to what they would have received if the absence had not occurred.

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Rate of basic pay can be defined as fixed pay received through minimum wage law or an administratively-determined wage. [2] Organizations and activists are working to inform, persuade and change pay-rate laws. Women in the workforce are at a disadvantage; regardless of legislation, a global gender pay gap is still visible. [3] The OECD is a primary supplier of research and data pertaining to parental-leave rights. [1]

Background

Parental leave, or family leave, is an employee benefit available in almost all countries. [4] The term "parental leave" may include maternity, paternity, and adoption leave; or may be used distinctively from "maternity leave" and "paternity leave" to describe separate family leave available to either parent to care for small children. [5] In some countries and jurisdictions, "family leave" also includes leave provided to care for ill family members. Often, the minimum benefits and eligibility requirements are stipulated by law.

Unpaid parental or family leave is provided when an employer is required to hold an employee's job while that employee is taking leave. Paid parental or family leave provides paid time off work to care for or make arrangements for the welfare of a child or dependent family member. The three most common models of funding are government-mandated social insurance/social security (where employees, employers, or taxpayers in general contribute to a specific public fund), employer liability (where the employer must pay the employee for the length of leave), and mixed policies that combine both social security and employer liability. [6]

Parental leave has been available as a legal right and/or governmental program for many years, in one form or another. In 2014, the International Labour Organization reviewed parental leave policies in 185 countries and territories, and found that all countries except Papua New Guinea have laws mandating some form of parental leave. [7] A different study showed that of 186 countries examined, 96% offered some pay to mothers during leave, but only 44% of those countries offered the same for fathers. [8] The United States, Suriname, Papua New Guinea, and a few island countries in the Pacific Ocean are the only countries in the United Nations that do not require employers to provide paid time off for new parents. [9] Private employers sometimes provide either or both unpaid and paid parental leave outside of or in addition to any legal mandate.

Research has linked paid parental leave to better health outcomes for children,[ citation needed ] as well as mothers. [10]

By country

For policies in different countries, see Parental_leave#By_country (note: in many countries there are different types of leave: for example, maternity leave, paternity leave, and parental leave; these terms are often misused or confused). Comparing the length of maternity leave (which is common in international rankings) may say very little about the situation of a family in a specific country. A country for example may have a long maternity leave but a short (or non-existent) parental or family leave, or vice versa. [11] [12] In the European Union, the Pregnant Workers Directive requires at least 14 weeks of maternity leave; while the Work–Life Balance Directive requires at least 10 days of paternity leave, as well as at least 4 months of parental leave, with 2 months being non-transferable.


Related Research Articles

The labour law concept of leave, specifically paid leave or, in some countries' long-form, a leave of absence, is an authorised prolonged absence from work, for any reason authorised by the workplace. When people "take leave" in this way, they are usually taking days off from their work that have been pre-approved by their employer in their contracts of employment. Labour laws normally mandate that these paid-leave days be compensated at either 100% of normal pay, or at a very high percentage of normal days' pay, such as 75% or 80%. A furlough is a type of leave.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Termination of employment</span> End of an existing relationship between an employee and their employer

Termination of employment or separation of employment is an employee's departure from a job and the end of an employee's duration with an employer. Termination may be voluntary on the employee's part (resignation), or it may be at the hands of the employer, often in the form of dismissal (firing) or a layoff. Dismissal or firing is usually thought to be the employee's fault, whereas a layoff is generally done for business reasons outside the employee's performance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parental leave</span> Time taken off to care for a new child

Parental leave, or family leave, is an employee benefit available in almost all countries. The term "parental leave" may include maternity, paternity, and adoption leave; or may be used distinctively from "maternity leave" and "paternity leave" to describe separate family leave available to either parent to care for their own children. In some countries and jurisdictions, "family leave" also includes leave provided to care for ill family members. Often, the minimum benefits and eligibility requirements are stipulated by law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</span> US labor law

The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) is a United States labor law requiring covered employers to provide employees with job-protected, unpaid leave for qualified medical and family reasons. The FMLA was a major part of President Bill Clinton's first-term domestic agenda, and he signed it into law on February 5, 1993. The FMLA is administered by the Wage and Hour Division of the United States Department of Labor.

Sick leave is paid time off from work that workers can use to stay home to address their health needs without losing pay. It differs from paid vacation time or time off work to deal with personal matters, because sick leave is intended for health-related purposes. Sick leave can include a mental health day and taking time away from work to go to a scheduled doctor's appointment. Some policies also allow paid sick time to be used to care for sick family members, or to address health and safety needs related to domestic violence or sexual assault. Menstrual leave is another type of time off work for a health-related reason, but it is not always paid.

The Labor Code of the Philippines is the legal code governing employment practices and labor relations in the Philippines. It was enacted through Presidential Decree No. 442 on Labor day, May 1, 1974, by President Ferdinand Marcos in the exercise of his then extant legislative powers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Employment-to-population ratio</span> Statistical ratio; proportion of a working age population that is employed

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development defines the employment rate as the employment-to-population ratio. This is a statistical ratio that measures the proportion of a country's working age population that is employed. This includes people that have stopped looking for work. The International Labour Organization states that a person is considered employed if they have worked at least 1 hour in "gainful" employment in the most recent week.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian labour law</span> Laws regulating labour in India

Indian labour law refers to law regulating labour in India. Traditionally, the Indian government at the federal and state levels has sought to ensure a high degree of protection for workers, but in practice, this differs due to the form of government and because labour is a subject in the concurrent list of the Indian Constitution. The Minimum Wages Act 1948 requires companies to pay the minimum wage set by the government alongside limiting working weeks to 40 hours. Overtime is strongly discouraged with the premium on overtime being 100% of the total wage. The Payment of Wages Act 1936 mandates the payment of wages on time on the last working day of every month via bank transfer or postal service. The Factories Act 1948 and the Shops and Establishment Act 1960 mandate 15 working days of fully paid vacation leave and 7 casual leaves each year to each employee, with an additional 7 fully paid sick days. The Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 gives female employees of every company the right to take 6 months' worth of fully paid maternity leave. It also provides for 6 weeks worth of paid leaves in case of miscarriage or medical termination of pregnancy. The Employees' Provident Fund Organisation and the Employees' State Insurance, governed by statutory acts provide workers with necessary social security for retirement benefits and medical and unemployment benefits respectively. Workers entitled to be covered under the Employees' State Insurance are also entitled to 90 days worth of paid medical leaves. A contract of employment can always provide for more rights than the statutory minimum set rights. The Indian parliament passed four labour codes in the 2019 and 2020 sessions. These four codes will consolidate 44 existing labour laws. They are: The Industrial Relations Code 2020, The Code on Social Security 2020, The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 and The Code on Wages 2019. Despite having one of the longest working hours, India has one of the lowest workforce productivity levels in the world.

Work–life balance in the United States is having enough time for work and enough time to have a personal life in the United States. Related, though broader, terms include lifestyle balance and life balance. The most important thing in work and life is the personal ability to demonstrate and meet the needs of work and personal life in order to achieve goals. People should learn to deal with role engagement management, role conflict management and managing life needs to achieve balance. Balance is about how to properly achieve the desired work and life satisfaction and needs in a conflict situation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child care in the United Kingdom</span>

Child care in the United Kingdom is supported by a combination of rights at work, public sector provision and private companies. Child care is usually undertaken by the parents, and more often the mother who takes leave from employment. Early childhood education in a crèche or nursery is not freely available from the public sector, while fee-paying pre-schools are.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Additional Paternity Leave Regulations 2010</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Additional Paternity Leave Regulations 2010 are a statutory instrument involving UK labour law, which introduced a basic right for mothers to transfer their right to unpaid leave to their partner if the mother has returned to work in the last three months of her nine-month maternity leave.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternity and Parental Leave etc. Regulations 1999</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Maternity and Parental Leave etc. Regulations 1999 is a statutory instrument, concerning UK labour law, which details the rights to maternity and parental leave for employees in the United Kingdom.

Shared earning/shared parenting marriage, also known as peer marriage, is a type of marriage where partners at the outset agree to adhere to a model of shared responsibility for earning money, meeting the needs of children, doing household chores, and taking recreation time in near equal fashion across these four domains. It refers to an intact family formed in the relatively equal earning and parenting style from its initiation. Peer marriage is distinct from shared parenting, as well as the type of equal or co-parenting that father's rights activists in the United States, the United Kingdom and elsewhere seek after a divorce in the case of marriages, or unmarried pregnancies/childbirths, not set up in this fashion at the outset of the relationship or pregnancy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parental leave in the United States</span> Regulated by US labor law

Parental leave is regulated in the United States by US labor law and state law. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) requires 12 weeks of unpaid leave annually for parents of newborn or newly adopted children if they work for a company with 50 or more employees. As of October 1, 2020, the same policy has been extended to caregivers of sick family members, or a partner in direct relation to the birth of the child therefore responsible for the care of the mother. Although 12 weeks are allowed to them, on average American fathers only take 10 days off, due to financial need. Beginning in 2020, California, New Jersey, and Rhode Island required paid parental leave to employees, including those a part of 50 or less employees. There is no paid paternity leave in the United States currently.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in the Czech Republic</span> Overview of the status of women in the Czech Republic

The Czech Republic provides a wide variety of civil rights to female citizens and Czech women have a long history of actively participating in Czech society. However, women in the Czech Republic continue to experience gender discrimination, particularly in the workforce and political arena.

Labour rights in New Zealand are largely covered by both statute, particularly the Employment Relations Act 2000, and common law. The Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment carries out most of the day to day administrative functions surrounding labour rights and their practical application in the state.

Italy does not have a nationally unified labor code. Labor legislation is wide-ranging, with laws, regulations and statutes that bear on labor relations. The Constitution of Italy contains declarations of principle relating to fair payment, maximum working hours, vacation, protection of women and minors, social insurance, illness, disability, industrial diseases and accidents, Freedom of Association and the right to strike. The Workers' Statute of 1970 was modified, and plays an important role.

Vermont has the 10th smallest gender wage gap of all the states in America, with women who work full-time year round in Vermont making, on average, 84 cents for every dollar made by a man. This equates to $7,589 yearly. Together, Vermont women lose over $705 million every year. For a single person, 16 cents on every dollar amounts to approximately seven months of rent, and $7,000 for a family of four would pay for six months of child care or groceries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Family policy in Japan</span>

Family policy in the country of Japan refers to government measures that attempt to increase the national birthrate in order to address Japan's declining population. It is speculated that leading causes of Japan's declining birthrate include the institutional and social challenges Japanese women face when expected to care for children while simultaneously working the long hours expected of Japanese workers. Japanese family policy measures therefore seek to make childcare easier for new parents.

In Italy, maternity leave is compulsory and women must take up to two months off from work before her due date and three months off after the baby's birth. In certain scenarios, women may ask their employers for more time off before the baby's due date if her pregnancy is considered at risk and if her workplace puts her health or her baby's in danger. In some instances, women can request to work up to one month before her due date with the approval of her doctor and employer. However, this means that she will have to take a total of four months off after the birth of her child.

References

  1. 1 2 "OECD Family Database - OECD". www.oecd.org. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
  2. ↑ "What is the definition of rate of basic pay for the purpose of paying a... - OPM.gov". U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
  3. ↑ Blau, Francine D.; Kahn, Lawrence M. (2003). "Understanding International Differences in the Gender Pay Gap". Journal of Labor Economics. 21 (1): 106–144. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.538.4625 . doi:10.1086/344125. S2CID   154638978.
  4. ↑ "U.S. behind most of world in parental leave policy: study; Papua New Guinea, Swaziland & U.S. lag". Daily News. New York. 24 December 2011.
  5. ↑ Ruhm, Christopher J. (1998). "The Economic Consequences of Parental Leave Mandates: Lessons from Europe" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Economics . 113 (1): 285–317. doi:10.1162/003355398555586. S2CID   51297709.
  6. ↑ Addati, Laura (1 January 2015). "Extending maternity protection to all women: Trends, challenges and opportunities". International Social Security Review. 68 (1): 69–93. doi:10.1111/issr.12060. ISSN   1468-246X.
  7. ↑ International Labour Organization. (2014). Maternity and Paternity at Work: Law and Practice Across the World.
  8. ↑ Gualt, Barbara; Hartmann, Heidi; Hegewisch, Ariane; Milli, Jessica; Reichlin, Lindsey. "Paid Parental Leave in the United States" (PDF). Institute for Women's Policy Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  9. ↑ Deahl, Jessica (6 October 2016). "Countries Around The World Beat The U.S. On Paid Parental Leave". NPR.
  10. ↑ Bütikofer, Aline; Riise, Julie; Skira, Meghan M. (2021). "The Impact of Paid Maternity Leave on Maternal Health" (PDF). American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 13 (1): 67–105. doi:10.1257/pol.20190022. ISSN   1945-7731. S2CID   234033258.
  11. ↑ "CNN: The world's Longest Paid Motherhood is in Bulgaria – Novinite.com – Sofia News Agency". novinite.com.
  12. ↑ "Family leave in Latvia – among the world's best".
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