Measures of campus sexual assault

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Research consistently shows that the majority of rape and other sexual assault victims do not report their attacks to law enforcement. Reasons for not reporting include fear of reprisal, shame, uncertainty about whether a crime was committed, or a belief that an incident was not sufficiently serious enough to report. As a result, researchers generally rely on surveys to measure sexual violence that is not reported to the police. [1] [2] [3] Estimates of campus sexual assault measured on surveys vary across populations and over time, however a recent review concluded that a "reasonable average" of around 1 in 5 (20%) of women were sexually assaulted during their time in college. [4] And although much of the research on sexual assault has focused on college campuses, there is evidence that non-students of the same age are actually at higher risk than college students. [5] [4] [6]

Contents

Selected Surveys of Campus Sexual Assault in the United States

Estimates of sexual assault, which vary based on definitions and methodology, find that roughly 6.1 sexual assaults per 1000 students occur annually, [7] [ dubious – discuss ] and that somewhere between 19–27% of college women and 6–8% of college men are sexually assaulted during their time in college. [8] to 29% [9] [10] [11]

2015 Campus Climate Surveys

The 2015 Association of American Universities (AAU) Campus Survey on Sexual Assault, one of the largest studies ever of college sexual violence, drew responses from Campus Climate Surveys of 150,000 students across 27 schools, including most of the Ivy League schools. [12] It found that more than 20% of female and 5% of male undergraduates said that they were victims of non-consensual sexual contact, defined as behaviors ranging from unwanted sexual touching or kissing to penetration, through either physical force or incapacitation, since entering college. [12] The overall response rate was 19%. While they noted that low response rates were only an indirect indicator of the reliability of the results, they found evidence that their estimates of sexual assaults may have been biased upward because respondents were more likely to have been assaulted than non-respondents.

Most respondents who reported sexual assault to the AAU said they did not report the incident to police or campus authorities because they did not consider the event “serious enough" to report, even when it included forced penetration. [10] [13] More than half of those who reported forcible penetration said that they did not report this crime because they did not think it was serious enough. [14] [15] [16]

Non-AAU Campus Climate Surveys

Several universities conducted independent sexual assault studies rather than participating in the AAU surveys. Unlike typical campus surveys that rely on volunteer student responses, the University of Kentucky made their survey mandatory. Diane Follingstad, Director of the Center for Research on Violence Against Women at UK, said that volunteered data is not always representative. “A survey that goes out to a campus is relying on whomever is willing to complete it. There is always a concern that samples are skewed.” She added, "As best we understand, we do not know of another survey at a university that includes all their students" [17] The UK survey encompassed 80% of students (24,300 respondents), roughly 5,000 students did not participate in time for the first round of data, and students had the option of opting out of questions if they felt uncomfortable answering them. [18] According to preliminary results, 5% of students reported incidents of completed or attempted vaginal, oral, or anal sex that occurred without their consent in the last year. [19] These results were comparable to previous surveys that used similar measures of sexual assault, such as the 2007 Campus Sexual Assault survey. [18]

A survey conducted by Rutgers University found that 12% of men and women had experienced some form of sexual assault, while at the University of Michigan, 22% of female students said they had been assaulted in the last year. [20]

National Crime Victimization Surveys

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is a national survey administered twice year by the United States Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). The purpose of the NCVS is to offer a uniform report of the incidence of crime including rape and sexual assault victimizations in the general population.

A 2014 assessment by Sinozich and Langton used longitudinal data from the NCVS to measure rape and sexual assault among college aged U.S. women from 1995 to 2013. Their findings indicated that rape, a subset of all sexual assault, had an incidence of 1.4 per 1,000 female students in 2013 [7] during the period studied. The study also found that college aged women (regardless of enrollment status) were assaulted at a significantly higher rate than non-college age women, 4.3 per 1,000 per year versus 1.4 per 1,000 per year, but that women who were not enrolled in college were 1.2 times more likely to be assaulted than college aged women who were enrolled. [7]

Rape/sexual assaults per 1,000 females reported on National Crime Victimization Survey (1995-2013). BJS Sexual Assualt Rates 1995-2013.png
Rape/sexual assaults per 1,000 females reported on National Crime Victimization Survey (1995–2013).

The NCVS is one of the few national level, longitudinal sources of data on rape and sexual assault, and it has a relatively high response rate (88%) compared to other studies of sexual victimization. Data is collected using telephone interviews, which permits clarifying questions, and uses a bounded time frame of six months, limiting the likelihood that results are overestimated due to "telescoping" (the reporting of events occurring outside of a reference period as though they occurred within the specified period). [7]

However, results reported by the NCVS are consistently lower than studies using other methodologies. Researchers, such as Bonnie Fisher and Mary Koss, have charged that the question wording, context, and sampling methodology used on the NCVS leads a systematic underestimate of the incidence of rape and sexual assault. [21] [22] [23] A recent assessment of the NCVS methodology conducted by the National Research Council pointed to four flaws in the NCSV approach: the use of a sampling methodology that was inefficient in measuring low-incidence events like rape and sexual assault; the ambiguous wording questions related to sexual violence; the criminal justice definitions of assault; and the lack of privacy offered to survey respondents (phone interview vs. completely anonymous survey). The authors concluded that these flaws make it "highly likely that the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is underestimating rape and sexual assault." [21]

Campus Sexual Assault Survey (2007)

In 2007 the National Institute of Justice funded the Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) survey, a web-based survey of 6,800 undergraduates at two large universities using multiple explicitly worded questions about sexual victimization. According to the results, 19% of women and 6.1% of men had been victims of at least one completed or attempted sexual assault since entering college. The study's authors also found that the majority of women were assaulted while incapacitated, that perpetrators were usually friends or acquaintances rather than strangers and that Freshmen and Sophomores were at a higher risk for sexual assault than Juniors and Seniors. [8]

Christopher Krebs, the lead author of the CSA, cautions that the results from these two schools in no way nationally representative, noting, in a conversation with one reporter: "We don’t think one in five is a nationally representative statistic.” and “In no way does that make our results nationally representative.". [24]

In a follow-up study in 2008, the authors of the 2007 Campus Sexual Assault Survey examined sexual violence experiences at historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). 3,951 undergraduate women from four HBCUs were given the same questionnaire used in the 2007 CSA. The study found that 14.2% of women attending these schools had experienced a completed or attempted sexual assault, and 8.3% had been victims of rape. The authors noted that incapacitated sexual assault was rarer among HBCU compared to non-HBCU students, and suggested that the differences in prevalence rates seemed "to be driven entirely by a difference in the rate of incapacitated sexual assault, which is likely explained by the fact that HBCU women drink alcohol much less frequently than non-HBCU women". [25]

National College Women Sexual Victimization (NCWSV) survey (2000)

In 2000, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) updated the 1997 National College Women Sexual Victimization (NCWSV) survey. In it, 4,446 American college women were chosen randomly and surveyed. The effort consisted of behaviorally specific questions that describe an incident in graphic language and cover the elements of a criminal offense, such as "Did someone make you have sexual intercourse by using force or threatening to harm you?" According to that survey, 1.7% of women had experienced a rape and another 1.1% had experienced an attempted rape in the previous 7 months. [26]

Koss Study (1985)

In 1985, in one of the earliest studies of campus sexual assault, Mary P. Koss, a professor of psychology at Kent State University, conducted a national rape survey on college campuses in the United States, sponsored by the National Institute of Health and with administrative support from Ms. Magazine. The survey, administered on 32 college campuses across the US, asked 3,187 female and 2,872 male undergraduate students about their sexual experiences since age 14. The survey included ten questions related to sexual coercion. Out of the 3,187 undergraduate women Koss surveyed, 207, or 6%, had been raped within the past year. 15.4% of Koss' female respondents had been raped since age 14, an additional 12.1% of female respondents had experienced attempted rape since age 14, and 4.4% of college men reported perpetrating legal rape since age 14. [22] The combined figure for rape and attempted rape of women since age 14, 27.5%, became known as the "one in four" statistic. [27]

Non-US studies

Studies that have examined sexual assault experiences among college students in western countries other than the U.S. have found results similar to those found by American researchers. A 1993 study of a nationally representative sample of Canadian College students found that 28% of women had experienced some form of sexual assault in the preceding year, and 45% of women had experienced some form of sexual assault since entering college. [28] A 1991 study of 347 undergraduates in New Zealand found that 25.3% had experienced rape or attempted rape, and 51.6% had experienced some form of sexual victimization. [29] A 2014 study of students in Great Britain found that 25% of women had experienced some type of sexual assault while attending university and 7% of women had experienced rape or attempted rape as college students. [30]

Report on Sexual Assault and Harassment at Australian Universities (2017)

The 2017 Change The Course study conducted nationally by the Australian Human Rights Commission reported that 21% of students had been sexually harassed during 2015-16 and 1.6% of students had been sexually assaulted during 2016. The most common form of sexual harassment was looking/staring at someone, followed by "inappropriate comments". [31] Sexual assaults at social events and residential colleges were reported as a particular area of concern. The study was prompted by activism by women's groups on campuses due to claims that universities were not effectively responding to incidents of sexual assault. [32] The Education Minister Simon Birmingham and the Sex Discrimination Commissioner Kate Jenkins threatened repercussions for the university industry, including the 39 universities who took part in the study, if they failed to act to reform campus culture contributing to the issue. [33] [32] The study also found that 87% of students who were deemed sexually assaulted, and 94% of students sexually harassed, did not make a formal complaint or report to their university. [31]

Selected studies of campus sexual assault

Major surveys of Campus Sexual Assault in the U.S.
SampleForms of victimization coveredMode of administrationResponse rateBehaviorally specific questions.Findings
National College Women Sexual Violence Study (1997) 4,446 stratified random sample of women from 223 institutions.Completed or attempted rape/sexual assault by force or coercionComputer aided telephone interview85.6%Yes2.8% of college women experienced a completed or attempted rape in the current academic year. 7.7% experienced some other form of forcible sexual assault.
Campus Sexual Assault Study (2007) Probability sample of 5,466 students enrolled at least three quarters time during 2005–2006 academic year at two large public universities.Physically forced, incapacitated and drug facilitated sexual assault/rapeSelf-administered, web-based38%Yes19% of undergraduate women and 6.1% of undergraduate men reported experiencing completed or attempted sexual assault since entering college, 8.5% of women reported a completed rape, and 3.4% reported an attempted rape.
National Criminal Victimization Study (1995–2013) National survey of roughly 145,000 respondents per year, averaged over 18 yearsCompleted or attempted rape/sexual assault by force or coercion.In-person and telephone74%No0.61% of women enrolled in college reported rape or sexual assaults in the past year.
AAU Campus Climate Surveys (2015) 150,000

students across 27 universities

Physically forced, incapacitated and drug facilitated sexual assault/rapeSelf-administered, web-based19%Yes23.1% of female undergraduates, 5.4% of male undergraduates, and 24.1% of T GQ N undergraduates reported being sexually assaulted since starting college. Among graduate students and professionals, the estimates were 8.8% female, 2.2% male, and 15.5% TGQN.

Related Research Articles

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), administered by the US Census Bureau under the Department of Commerce, is a national survey of approximately 49,000 to 150,000 households - with approximately 240,000 persons aged 12 or older - twice a year in the United States, on the frequency of crime victimization, as well as characteristics and consequences of victimization. The survey focuses on gathering information on the following crimes: assault, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, rape, and robbery. The survey results are used for the purposes of building a crime index. It has been used in comparison with the Uniform Crime Reports and the National Incident-Based Reporting System to assess the dark figure of crime. The NCVS survey is comparable to the British Crime Survey conducted in the United Kingdom.

Sexual assault is an act in which one intentionally sexually touches another person without that person's consent, or coerces or physically forces a person to engage in a sexual act against their will. It is a form of sexual violence that includes child sexual abuse, groping, rape, drug facilitated sexual assault, and the torture of the person in a sexual manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual harassment</span> Unwanted sexual attention or advances

Sexual harassment is a type of harassment involving the use of explicit or implicit sexual overtones, including the unwelcome and inappropriate promises of rewards in exchange for sexual favors. Sexual harassment can be physical and/or verbal. Sexual harassment includes a range of actions from verbal transgressions to sexual abuse or assault. Harassment can occur in many different social settings such as the workplace, the home, school, or religious institutions. Harassers or victims can be of any gender.

A violent crime, violent felony, crime of violence or crime of a violent nature is a crime in which an offender or perpetrator uses or threatens to use harmful force upon a victim. This entails both crimes in which the violent act is the objective, such as murder, assault, rape and assassination, as well as crimes in which violence is used as a method of coercion or show of force, such as robbery, extortion and terrorism. Violent crimes may, or may not, be committed with weapons. Depending on the jurisdiction, violent crimes may be regarded with varying severities from homicide to harassment. There have been many theories regarding heat being the cause of an increase in violent crime. Theorists claim that violent crime is persistent during the summer due to the heat, further causing people to become aggressive and commit more violent crime.

Acquaintance rape is rape that is perpetrated by a person who knows the victim. Examples of acquaintances include someone the victim is dating, a classmate, co-worker, employer, family member, spouse, counselor, therapist, religious official, or medical doctor. Acquaintance rape includes a subcategory of incidents labeled date rape that involves people who are in romantic or sexual relationships with each other. When a rape is perpetrated by a college student on another student, the term campus rape is sometimes used.

Some victims of rape or other sexual violence incidents are male. It is estimated that approximately one in six men experienced sexual abuse during childhood. Historically, rape was thought to be, and defined as, a crime committed solely against females. This belief is still held in some parts of the world, but rape of males is now commonly criminalized and has been subject to more discussion than in the past.

Prison rape commonly refers to the rape of inmates in prison by other inmates or prison staff. In 2001, Human Rights Watch estimated that at least 4.3 million inmates had been raped while incarcerated in the United States. A United States Department of Justice report, Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, states that "In 2011–12, an estimated 4.0% of state and federal prison inmates and 3.2% of jail inmates reported experiencing one or more incidents of sexual victimization by another inmate or facility staff in the past 12 months or since admission to the facility, if less than 12 months." However, advocates dispute the accuracy of the numbers, saying they seem to under-report the real numbers of sexual assaults in prison, especially among juveniles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rape culture</span> Society in which rape is pervasive and normalised

Rape culture is a setting, studied by several sociological theories, in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, slut-shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence, or some combination of these. It has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire societies have been alleged to be rape cultures.

Date rape is a form of acquaintance rape and dating violence. The two phrases are often used interchangeably, but date rape specifically refers to a rape in which there has been some sort of romantic or potentially sexual relationship between the two parties. Acquaintance rape also includes rapes in which the victim and perpetrator have been in a non-romantic, non-sexual relationship, for example as co-workers or neighbors.

Native American women encounter a disproportionate level of sexual violence from verbal abuse to physical harm, including but not limited to domestic and sexual assaults. Such violations not only result in lasting detrimental effects on the individuals subjected to them but also reverberate throughout their entire community, exacerbating social challenges.

Rape by gender classifies types of rape by the sex and/or gender of both the rapist and the victim. This scope includes both rape and sexual assault more generally. Most research indicates that rape affects women disproportionately, with the majority of people convicted being men; however, since the broadening of the definition of rape in 2012 by the FBI, more attention is being given to male rape, including females raping males.

Statistics on rape and other sexual assaults are commonly available in industrialized countries, and have become better documented throughout the world. Inconsistent definitions of rape, different rates of reporting, recording, prosecution and conviction for rape can create controversial statistical disparities, and lead to accusations that many rape statistics are unreliable or misleading.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Factors associated with being a victim of sexual violence</span>

One of the most common forms of sexual violence around the world is that which is perpetrated by an intimate partner, leading to the conclusion that one of the most important risk factors for people in terms of their vulnerability to sexual assault is being married or cohabiting with a partner. Other factors influencing the risk of sexual violence include:

Victimisation is the state or process of being victimised or becoming a victim. The field that studies the process, rates, incidence, effects, and prevalence of victimisation is called victimology.

Rape in the United States is defined by the United States Department of Justice as "Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim." While definitions and terminology of rape vary by jurisdiction in the United States, the FBI revised its definition to eliminate a requirement that the crime involve an element of force.

Campus sexual assault is the sexual assault, including rape, of a student while attending an institution of higher learning, such as a college or university. The victims of such assaults are more likely to be female, but any gender can be victimized. Estimates of sexual assault, which vary based on definitions and methodology, generally find that somewhere between 19 and 27% of college women and 6–8% of college men are sexually assaulted during their time in college.

Mary P. Koss is an American Regents' Professor at the University of Arizona, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health in Tucson, Arizona. Her best known works have been in the areas of gender-based violence and restorative justice.

<i>I Never Called It Rape</i>

I Never Called It Rape is a 1988 book by journalist Robin Warshaw. The book focuses on the hidden epidemic of acquaintance and date rape. The book is largely based on a nationwide study in the United States, the Ms. Magazine Campus Project on Sexual Assault. The title references the finding in the study that 73% of women whose sexual assault met the definition of rape did not identify their experience as such.

The ARC3 Survey is a campus climate survey developed to assess perpetration and victimization of sexual misconduct on college campuses in the United States. In addition to measuring rates of sexual assault on campus, the survey also gathers data on those who are engaging in sexual assault. It was developed by a group of sexual assault researchers and student affairs professionals in response to the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault. The survey is free for college campuses to use. The study has been used to assess both graduate and undergraduate students.

A rape threat is a threat made against another person of rape or sexual assault. Rape threats may often be made anonymously or online through the use of social media, and especially against social media influencers. These threats are often made against prominent people such as high-profile writers, actors, comedians and politicians.

References

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  13. ↑ Report on the AAU Campus Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Sexual Misconduct (PDF). Association of American Universities. September 3, 2015.
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  15. ↑ Wallace, Kelly (23 September 2015). "23% of women report sexual assault in college, study finds". CNN. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
  16. ↑ Carr Smyth, Julie. "Survey: 1 in 4 college women report unwanted sexual contact". Associated Press. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
  17. ↑ Lopez, Ashley (21 August 2015). "How the University of Kentucky Tackled Underreporting Of Sexual Assault On Campus". WFPL News. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
  18. 1 2 New, Jake. "Different Conclusions on Sex Assault". insidehighered.com. Retrieved 13 June 2016.
  19. ↑ "Campus Attitudes Toward Safety -- executive report". University of Kentucky. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
  20. ↑ New, Jake (2 September 2015). "Differing Definitions". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
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  22. 1 2 Koss, Mary P.; Gidycz, Christine A.; Wisniewski, Nadine (April 1987). "The scope of rape: incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology . 55 (2): 162–170. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.55.2.162. PMID   3494755. Pdf.
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  30. ↑ NUS (2011). Hidden Marks: A study of women student's experiences of harassment, stalking, violence, and sexual assault (PDF) (2nd ed.). London, UK: National Union of Students . Retrieved 10 January 2015.
  31. 1 2 AHRC (2017-07-31). "Change The Course: National Report on Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment at Australian Universities (2017)". www.humanrights.gov.au. Retrieved 2017-08-07.
  32. 1 2 "Unis urged to act as 'shocking' survey reveals half of all students face sexual harassment". ABC News. 2017-08-01. Retrieved 2017-08-07.
  33. ↑ Bagshaw, Eryk (2017-08-02). "'We should all be shocked' leader of university with worst results comforts students". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2017-08-07.
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