Related Research Articles
Distance education, also known as distance learning, is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school, or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance. Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via mail. Today, it usually involves online education and the learning is usually mediated by some form of technology. A distance learning program can be completely distance learning, or a combination of distance learning and traditional classroom instruction. Other modalities include distance learning with complementary virtual environment or teaching in virtual environment (e-learning).
Instructional design (ID), also known as instructional systems design (ISD), is the practice of systematically designing, developing and delivering instructional materials and experiences, both digital and physical, in a consistent and reliable fashion toward an efficient, effective, appealing, engaging and inspiring acquisition of knowledge. The process consists broadly of determining the state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.
Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event, but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.
Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies.
Pedagogy, most commonly understood as the approach to teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary greatly, as they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts.
Continuing education is an all-encompassing term within a broad list of post-secondary learning activities and programs. The term is used mainly in the United States and Canada.
Andragogy refers to methods and principles used in adult education. The word comes from the Greek ἀνδρ- (andr-), meaning "man", and ἀγωγός (agogos), meaning "leader of". Therefore, andragogy literally means "leading men", whereas "pedagogy" literally means "leading children".
Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know. For children, this includes knowledge gained prior to entering school. It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as well as ontology, politics, and ethics. The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
Transactional distance theory was developed in the 1970s by Dr. Michael G. Moore, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Education at the Pennsylvania State University. It is the first pedagogical theory specifically derived from analysis of teaching and learning conducted through technology as opposed to the many theories developed in the classroom. It is considered by some to be one of the few, if not the only, theory in distance education that can be used to test hypotheses. It can be used to frame experiments in tutoring or other learner support activities to assess what change there is in the outcomes of student learning, often judged by student completion. Like any theory, the transactional distance model serves as a heuristic device, a means of identifying questions for research and also a very practical instrument to be used in making these difficult instructional design decisions.
Independent study is a form of education offered by many high schools, colleges, and other educational institutions. It is sometimes referred to as directed study, and is an educational activity undertaken by an individual with little to no supervision. Typically a student and professor or teacher agree upon a topic for the student to research with guidance from the instructor for an agreed upon amount of credits. Independent studies provide a way for well-motivated students to pursue a topic of interest that does not necessarily fit into a traditional academic curriculum. They are a way for students to learn specialized material or gain research experience.
Online tutoring is the process of tutoring in an online, virtual, or networked, environment, in which teachers and learners participate from separate physical locations. Aside from space, literature also states that participants can be separated by time.
Charles A. Wedemeyer (1911–1999) was a pioneer in the field of independent and distance learning. He challenged university administrators to expand access and opportunity to autonomous learners. "Educational change is evolutionary, and its tempo is glacial," he wrote.
A significant construct in language learning research, identity is defined as "how a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is structured across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future". Recognizing language as a social practice, identity highlights how language constructs and is constructed by a variety of relationships. Because of the diverse positions from which language learners can participate in social life, identity is theorized as multiple, subject to change, and a site of struggle.
The Interaction hypothesis is a theory of second-language acquisition which states that the development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction and communication. Its main focus is on the role of input, interaction, and output in second language acquisition. It posits that the level of language that a learner is exposed to must be such that the learner is able to comprehend it, and that a learner modifying their speech so as to make it comprehensible facilitates their ability to acquire the language in question. The idea existed in the 1980s, and has been reviewed and expanded upon by a number of other scholars but is usually credited to Michael Long.
Donn Randy Garrison is a Canadian professor emeritus at the University of Calgary who has published extensively on distance education.
M. David Merrill is an education researcher specializing in instructional design and technology.
Börje Holmberg was a Swedish educator and writer. He was born in Malmö, Sweden in March 1924 and wrote profusely on distance education in Swedish, German and English. A pioneer of distance education, and a former President of the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), he was awarded honorary doctorates by Deakin University in Australia and the Open University in the United Kingdom. He was a member of the Royal Physiographic Society in Lund, an academy of sciences founded in 1792, a Knight of the Royal Order of Vasa, Sweden, as well as of the Order of the White Rose of Finland. Holmberg died in April 2021 at the age of 97.
Andrew S. Gibbons is an American practitioner and theorist in the field of instructional design and technology. He has proposed an architectural theory of instructional design influenced by the structural principles of artifact modularization drawn from a number of design disciplines, as exemplified by the work of Carliss Baldwin and Kim B. Clark.
Open Cyber University (OCU) is a consortium of Korean universities. It was founded in 1997 and is considered as the largest Korean academic exchange university as of 2012 with 35 member universities. The organization is authorized by South Korea's Ministry of Education to offer bachelor's degree in various fields of industry. It offers courses for subjects such as World English.
Online learning involves courses offered by primary institutions that are 100% virtual. Online learning, or virtual classes offered over the internet, is contrasted with traditional courses taken in a brick-and-mortar school building. It is a development in distance education that expanded in the 1990s with the spread of the commercial Internet and the World Wide Web. The learner experience is typically asynchronous but may also incorporate synchronous elements. The vast majority of institutions utilize a learning management system for the administration of online courses. As theories of distance education evolve, digital technologies to support learning and pedagogy continue to transform as well.
References
1. Keegan, K. (ed.) (1993). Theory of transactional distance, in Theoretical principles of distance education, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 22–39.
2. Palmer-Cooper, J. (ed.) (2016). The Routledge Encyclopedia of Educational Thinkers, New York, Routledge.
3. M. G. Moore, (Ed.) (2013). Handbook of Distance Education (3rd ed.), Chapter 2, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2013.
4. Moore, M. G. (1977). Investigation of the interaction between the cognitive style of field independence and attitudes to independent study among adult learners who use correspondence independent study and self-directed independent study, Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin. Madison, University Microfilms No. 76-20, 127,p. 8.
5. Moore, M. G. (1973). Towards a theory of independent learning and teaching, Journal of Higher Education. 44, 661–679.
6. Moore, M. G. (1980). Independent study, in R. Boyd & J. Apps (Eds.), Redefining the discipline of adult education (pp. 16–31). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
7. Saba, F. (2013). Building the future: A theoretical perspective, in M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (3rd ed.), New York: Routledge, pp. 49–65.
8. Moore M. G. and G. Kearsley, G. (2012). Distance Education: A Systems View, (3rd Ed.), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
9. Moore M. G. and G. Kearsley, G. (1999). Distance education: a systems view, (In Chinese), Taiwan, Unalis Corp. ISBN 957 22 3156 1.
10. Moore M. G. and G. Kearsley, G. (1998). Distance education: A systems view, (In Korean), Yae Ji Gak Publishing Company, ISBN 89-488-0613-0.
11. Moore M. G. and G. Kearsley,G. (2004). Distance education: A systems view, (In Japanese), Tokyo, Kaibundo Publishing Company.
12. Moore M. G. and Kearsley, G. Distance education: A systems view, (In Portuguese).
13. Moore M. G. and Anderson, W. G. (Eds.) (2003). Handbook of distance education, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
14. Moore, M. G. and Diehl, W. (Eds.) (2019). Handbook of Distance Education (4th ed.), New York: Routledge.
- ↑ "V. Craig Jordan, Michael G. Moore to receive honorary degrees from UW–Madison". news.wisc.edu. Retrieved 2022-08-05.
- ↑ "Honorary Degree Recipients". Office of the Secretary of the Faculty. Retrieved 2022-08-05.