Charles Herbert Stockton was a rear admiral in the United States Navy and the U.S. Navy's first uniformed expert in international law. Stockton served as the President of the Naval War College, and later served as President of the George Washington University from 1910 to 1918
The Charles H. Stockton Chair of International Law at the United States Naval War College has its origins in the Naval War College's oldest civilian academic post. The first civilian academic at the college, James R. Soley was appointed in 1885 to lecture on international law. Dr. Freeman Snow of Harvard University gave lectures on the subject in 1894, his death in the midst of the academic program led to the appointment then Commander Charles Stockton to complete his lectures and to publish them for the use of the Navy. Stockton prepared a new edition in 1898, teaching classes in the subject. In 1901, Professoe John Bassett Moore lectured on international law and recommended that the college appoint Harvard University Law professor George Grafton Wilson as the visiting professor. Wilson lectured annually from 1901 to 1937. From 1946 to 1953, Professor Manley Hudson of Harvard regularly came from Cambridge to give the college's International Law lectures.
Beginning on 27 April 2007, a series of cyberattacks targeted websites of Estonian organizations, including Estonian parliament, banks, ministries, newspapers and broadcasters, amid the country's disagreement with Russia about the relocation of the Bronze Soldier of Tallinn, an elaborate Soviet-era grave marker, as well as war graves in Tallinn. Most of the attacks that had any influence on the general public were distributed denial of service type attacks ranging from single individuals using various methods like ping floods to expensive rentals of botnets usually used for spam distribution. Spamming of bigger news portals commentaries and defacements including that of the Estonian Reform Party website also occurred. Research has also shown that large conflicts took place to edit the English-language version of the Bronze Soldier's Wikipedia page.
Proactive cyber defense, means acting in anticipation to oppose an attack through cyber and cognitive domains. Proactive cyber defense can be understood as options between offensive and defensive measures. It includes interdicting, disrupting or deterring an attack or a threat's preparation to attack, either pre-emptively or in self-defence.
NATO CCD COE, officially the NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence, is one of NATO Centres of Excellence, located in Tallinn, Estonia. The centre was established on 14 May 2008, it received full accreditation by NATO and attained the status of International Military Organisation on 28 October 2008. NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence is an international military organisation with a mission to enhance the capability, cooperation and information sharing among NATO, its member nations and partners in cyber defence by virtue of education, research and development, lessons learned and consultation.
Howard Sidney Levie was one of America's foremost legal experts on the law of war and the key draftsman of the Korean Armistice Agreement.
The International Institute of Humanitarian Law (IIHL) is an independent, “non-profit, humanitarian association having social values as its objectives”, founded in 1970 in Sanremo, Italy. Its headquarters are situated in Villa Ormond, while a liaison office of the Institute is established in Geneva, Switzerland.
The HPCR Manual on International Law Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare was formulated by a multi-year project that was set up to restate the existing international laws applicable to air and missile warfare. The project was created in 2003 by the Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University (HPCR) after consulting with scholars and governmental experts.
Nils Joachim Melzer is a Swiss academic, author, and practitioner in the field of international law. From 2016 until 2022, Melzer was the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. He is a professor of international law at the University of Glasgow. From 2011-2013, he was Swiss Chair of International Humanitarian Law at the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights. Melzer has criticised the governments of the U.S., the U.K., Ecuador and Sweden over their treatment of Julian Assange.
Dr. Paul N. Stockton is the President of Paul N Stockton LLC, a strategic advisory firm in Santa Fe, NM. From 2009 to 2013, Dr. Stockton served as Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense and Americas' Security Affairs, where he helped lead the department's response to Hurricane Sandy. He was responsible for Defense Critical Infrastructure Protection, Western Hemisphere security policy, domestic crisis management, continuity of operations planning, and a range of other responsibilities. While Assistant Secretary, Dr. Stockton also served as executive director of the Council of Governors. After serving as Assistant Secretary, Dr. Stockton was the managing director of Sonecon LLC, an advisory firm in Washington, DC, from 2013 to 2020.
The Tallinn Manual, originally entitled, Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare, is an academic, non-binding study on how international law, especially jus ad bellum and international humanitarian law, applies to cyber conflicts and cyber warfare. Between 2009 and 2012, the Tallinn Manual was written at the invitation of the Tallinn-based NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence by an international group of approximately twenty experts. In April 2013, the manual was published by Cambridge University Press.
Martin C. Libicki is an American scholar and Professor at the Frederick S. Pardee RAND Graduate School in Santa Monica, California.
Danielle Keats Citron is a Jefferson Scholars Foundation Schenck Distinguished Professor in Law at the University of Virginia School of Law, where she teaches information privacy, free expression, and civil rights law. Citron is the author of "The Fight for Privacy: Protecting Dignity, Identity, and Love in the Digital Age" and "Hate Crimes in Cyberspace" (2014). She also serves as the Vice President of the Cyber Civil Rights Initiative, an organization which provides assistance and legislative support to victims of online abuse. Prior to joining UVA Law, Citron was an Austin B. Fletcher Distinguished Professor of Law at Boston University Law School, and was also the Morton & Sophia Macht Professor of Law at the University of Maryland School of Law.
Schmitt analysis is a legal framework developed in 1999 by Michael N. Schmitt, leading author of the Tallinn Manual, for deciding if a state's involvement in a cyber-attack constitutes a use of force. Such a framework is important as part of international law's adaptation process to the growing threat of cyber-warfare. The characteristics of a cyber-attack can determine which legal regime will govern state behavior, and the Schmitt analysis is one of the most commonly used ways of analyzing those characteristics. It can also be used as a basis for training professionals in the legal field to deal with cyberwarfare.
Robert F. Turner was a professor of international law and national security law at the University of Virginia and the co-founder of its Center for National Security Law.
Colonel Gary D. Brown is an American lawyer and former officer in the United States Air Force. He was the official U.S. observer to the drafting of the Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare (2013) and is a member of the International Group of Experts that authored Tallinn Manual 2.0 (2017). Professor Brown also appeared as the legal expert in the documentary film Zero Days (2016).
James Kraska is an internationally acclaimed American scholar and a distinguished professor of public international maritime law specializing in the international law of the sea and the law of maritime operations, and naval warfare. He is the current Chairman and Charles H. Stockton Professor of International Maritime Law at Stockton Center for International Law, United States Naval War College. He is also a Visiting Professor of Law and John Harvey Gregory Lecturer on World Organization at Harvard Law School.
The Stockton Center for International Law is an American research center at the Center for Naval Warfare Studies at the Naval War College. The center is focused on original research and analysis in international law and military operations. Predominantly, the Stockton Center has been involved in the review of various military manuals under international law, including the Tallinn Manual 2.0, the San Remo Manual and the Woomera Manual. Additionally, the center is responsible for the International Law Studies Journal, the editor-in-chief of which is the current Charles H. Stockton Professor of International Law, Professor James Kraska. The center routinely organizes workshops and seminars on contemporary issues in international law.
Robin Geiss is a German academic specializing in public international law. In 2021, he was appointed by United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres as Director of the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. Prior to this, Geiss held various academic appointments including as Swiss Chair of International Humanitarian Law at the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights and Director of the Glasgow Centre for International Law and Security at the University of Glasgow.
Marko Milanović is Professor of Public International Law at the School of Law of the University of Reading. He is an editor of the European Journal of International Law and its blog, EJIL: Talk!.
