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This article specifically addresses U.S. armed forces military computers and their use.
Some of the earliest computers were military computers. Military requirements for portability and ruggedness led to some of the earliest transistorized computers, such as the 1958 AN/USQ-17, the 1959 AN/MYK-1 (MOBIDIC), the 1960 M18 FADAC, and the 1962 D-17B; the earliest integrated-circuit based computer, the 1964 D-37C; as well as one of the earliest laptop computers, the 1982 Grid Compass. Military requirements for a computer small enough to fit through a submarine's hatch led to the AN/UYK-1.
Typically a military computer is much more robust than an industrial computer enclosure. Most electronics will be protected with a layer of conformal coating. There will be more structure inside to support the components, the plug-in cards will be individually supported and secured to assure they do not pop out of their sockets, the processor and heat sink will be secured, memory will be glued into their sockets, and so forth. This is to assure nothing moves during the shock events.
There are several differentiators between military computers and typical office or consumer computers:
Cost – Military computers are generally much more expensive than office/consumer computers. Consumer computers from manufacturers such as Dell are manufactured in very high quantities which leads to lower costs due to economy of scale. Military programs, on the other hand, can require small numbers of systems leading to higher costs. Military computers will typically also be constructed of more robust materials with more internal structure, more cooling fans, a more robust power supply, and so forth.
Intended Environment – An office or consumer computer is intended for use in a very controlled shirt-sleeve environment with moderate temperatures and humidity and minimal dust. A military computer can be designed to operate in very adverse environments with extremes of temperature such as -4F to +149F (-20C to +65C) operating, 5% to 95% humidity levels, and high dust loading in the air as well as other insults to the hardware. They may be required to operate in high salt environments such as on a ship or designed for high shock and vibration such as on a ship or submarine. Military computers may be intended for installation on aircraft in which case they need to be crash worthy and able to operate at high altitudes if in unpressurized aircraft. The same computer may be required to operate in Afghanistan as well as in Alaska with no change in the design.
Long Term Availability – Military programs last years and identical replacement hardware may be required over the life of the program. Consumer computers are often driven by the latest and greatest to realize the highest possible performance, such as required to play games. The motherboard in a consumer grade computer may have an availability measured in months instead of years or decades. In a consumer level computer, over the lifetime of the product availability, it is not unheard of for all the components such as the motherboard, drives, BIOS, video board, etc., to be different from computer to computer. That is not acceptable in a military computer for which supporting documents have been created and systems tested and approved.
Architecture – There are many types of computer architecture. The most common that people know of is the PC as created by IBM. Many military computer systems are built around alternative plug-in bus structures such as VMEbus or Compact PCI. A military computer may not provide for plug-in cards and be in a dedicated form factor for a specific application such as installation on a UAV such as the Global Hawk.
Feature Set – A military computer may have features not found on a consumer grade computer such as Circular connectors, hot swap power supplies, hot swap fans, custom front panel features such as LCD displays, and so forth.
The Armed Forces have many numerical designations for computers or other equipment, to guide the military buyer's choice of appropriate technology for their application. For instance, MIL-S-901D [1] would indicate that the computer passed shock and vibration requirements of specific tests for Navy installation. Some of these tests are specific to application usage, such as barge explosion testing, which simulates a torpedo hit and subsequent high peak shock to a ship on which the computer is installed. The "gold standard" of testing for compliance with 901D is the Barge Test. A Barge Test is performed four times, each time placing 60 lbs HBX-1 explosive 24 feet under water, starting at 40 feet away, then at 30, 25 and finally 20 feet. In addition, the tests are performed in a fore-and-aft orientation to simulate an explosion at the bow or stern of the ship and athwartship to simulate an explosion by the side of the ship. A video of a barge test can be viewed.
Other more common requirements are MIL-STD-810 for environmental testing such as storage and operating temperature, humidity, salt spray, dirt, etc. Another common specification is MIL-STD-461 for electromagnetic compatibility. There are specifications for workmanship, wiring, packaging, and so forth, that military computers are required to meet.
More on MIL Standards and Specifications at Defense Standard.
To meet the challenges of defending the U.S. cyber network, the U.S. military has taken steps to improve the security of devices connected to Department of Defense information networks. According to United States Cyber Command, "Cyber threats demand new approaches to managing information, securing information, and ensuring our ability to operate." [2]
All military computers must conform to the latest FIPS 140 standards (FIPS 140-2) which specify the latest requirements for cryptography modules on devices used throughout the U.S. government. [3] FIPS 140-3, currently under development, will address new requirements to face existing threats, including software security and an additional level of security.
To address the risks associated with the increasing prevalence of commercial mobile devices (CMDs), a DoD Inspector General report from March 2013 identifies improvements necessary to track and configure commercial mobile devices to meet Army compliance standards. The report identifies existing gaps in tracking and sanitization for over 14,000 CMDs, recommending a "clear and comprehensive policy to include requirements for reporting and tracking all commercial mobile devices purchased under pilot and non-pilot programs." [4]
The progress of small-scale computer technology in military applications was initially slow due to concerns about security and the ability to survive rugged environments and enemy weaponry. PC-based technology in the 20th century was not robust enough to withstand combat conditions and severe environments.
Hazards in the field include water and corrosives, sand and wind, extreme temperatures, high shock and vibration, power interruptions, susceptibility to EMI/RFI radiation, etc. Also, operator interface was complex, and most operating systems were not fast in operation, or easy to learn and use in pressure situations.
In the last decade, improvements in design and operator interface have resulted in new mandates for the use of small computer technology in the military. Some of the improvements have migrated over from home and business computing. Others have migrated over from industrial computing, where designs for environments such as Zone 1 hazardous areas in oil & gas exploration have been modified for army and navy environments.
In the last 20 years, wide acceptance of small-scale computer technology in the military has occurred, and is likely to increase greatly. Confidence has improved in the ability of equipment to withstand combat and extreme environment conditions. Most importantly, modern combat has become a duel of speed. Faster and more technologically advanced weaponry demonstrates first-strike capability in current combat situations, which is likely only to encourage further implementation of computer technology into systems used in the UK Armed Forces in the future.
Various branches of the military have mandated that future systems will be based on Zero Client or Thin Client technology. [5] [6]
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is a research and development agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. Originally known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the agency was created on February 7, 1958, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957. By collaborating with academia, industry, and government partners, DARPA formulates and executes research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, often beyond immediate U.S. military requirements. The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996.
In computer networking, a thin client, sometimes called slim client or lean client, is a simple (low-performance) computer that has been optimized for establishing a remote connection with a server-based computing environment. They are sometimes known as network computers, or in their simplest form as zero clients. The server does most of the work, which can include launching software programs, performing calculations, and storing data. This contrasts with a rich client or a conventional personal computer; the former is also intended for working in a client–server model but has significant local processing power, while the latter aims to perform its function mostly locally.
An embedded system is a specialized computer system—a combination of a computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electronic system. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including electrical or electronic hardware and mechanical parts. Because an embedded system typically controls physical operations of the machine that it is embedded within, it often has real-time computing constraints. Embedded systems control many devices in common use. In 2009, it was estimated that ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors manufactured were used in embedded systems.
In computer networking, a rich client is a computer that typically provides rich functionality independent of the central server. This kind of computer was originally known as just a "client" or "thick client," in contrast with "thin client", which describes a computer heavily dependent on a server's applications. A rich client may be described as having a rich user interaction.
Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP) is a free and open-source terminal server for Linux that allows many people to simultaneously use the same computer. Applications run on the server with a terminal known as a thin client handling input and output. Generally, terminals are low-powered, lack a hard disk and are quieter and more reliable than desktop computers because they do not have any moving parts.
A diskless node is a workstation or personal computer without disk drives, which employs network booting to load its operating system from a server.
The 140 series of Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) are U.S. government computer security standards that specify requirements for cryptographic modules.
Trusted Platform Module (TPM) is an international standard for a secure cryptoprocessor, a dedicated microcontroller designed to secure hardware through integrated cryptographic keys. The term can also refer to a chip conforming to the standard ISO/IEC 11889. Common uses are to verify platform integrity, and to store disk encryption keys.
Information security standards are techniques generally outlined in published materials that attempt to protect a user's or organization's cyber environment. This environment includes users themselves, networks, devices, all software, processes, information in storage or transit, applications, services, and systems that can be connected directly or indirectly to networks.
MIL-STD-810, U.S. Department of Defense Test Method Standard, Environmental Engineering Considerations and Laboratory Tests, is a United States Military Standard that emphasizes tailoring an equipment's environmental design and test limits to the conditions that it will experience throughout its service life, and establishing chamber test methods that replicate the effects of environments on the equipment rather than imitating the environments themselves. Although prepared specifically for U.S. military applications, the standard is often applied for commercial products as well.
A rugged computer or ruggedized computer is a computer specifically designed to operate reliably in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures and wet or dusty conditions. They are designed from inception for the type of rough use typified by these conditions, not just in the external housing but in the internal components and cooling arrangements as well.
Electronic packaging is the design and production of enclosures for electronic devices ranging from individual semiconductor devices up to complete systems such as a mainframe computer. Packaging of an electronic system must consider protection from mechanical damage, cooling, radio frequency noise emission and electrostatic discharge. Product safety standards may dictate particular features of a consumer product, for example, external case temperature or grounding of exposed metal parts. Prototypes and industrial equipment made in small quantities may use standardized commercially available enclosures such as card cages or prefabricated boxes. Mass-market consumer devices may have highly specialized packaging to increase consumer appeal. Electronic packaging is a major discipline within the field of mechanical engineering.
Desktop virtualization is a software technology that separates the desktop environment and associated application software from the physical client device that is used to access it.
A web desktop or webtop is a desktop environment embedded in a web browser or similar client application. A webtop integrates web applications, web services, client–server applications, application servers, and applications on the local client into a desktop environment using the desktop metaphor. Web desktops provide an environment similar to that of Windows, Mac, or a graphical user interface on Unix and Linux systems. It is a virtual desktop running in a web browser. In a webtop the applications, data, files, configuration, settings, and access privileges reside remotely over the network. Much of the computing takes place remotely. The browser is primarily used for display and input purposes.
Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage and computing power, without direct active management by the user. Large clouds often have functions distributed over multiple locations, each of which is a data center. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and typically uses a pay-as-you-go model, which can help in reducing capital expenses but may also lead to unexpected operating expenses for users.
Reliability of a semiconductor device is the ability of the device to perform its intended function during the life of the device in the field.
Package testing or packaging testing involves the measurement of a characteristic or property involved with packaging. This includes packaging materials, packaging components, primary packages, shipping containers, and unit loads, as well as the associated processes.
Military Specification MIL-S-901D is for high-impact mechanical shock which applies to equipment mounted on ships. Its publication date was Mar 17, 1989. Two levels apply: Grade A items are items which are essential to the safety and continued combat capability of the ship; Grade B items are items whose operation is not essential to the safety and combat capability of the ship but which could become a hazard to personnel, to Grade A items, or to the ship as a whole as a result of exposure to shock. "Grade C", signifying that no shock qualification is required, is also sometimes referenced in acquisition documents even though the term has no official standing in the specification document. Qualification testing is performed on a specified machine or on a barge floating in a pond where an explosive charge is detonated at various distances and depths in the pond to impart shock to the barges.
Panasonic Toughpad is a series of tablet computers developed and designed by Panasonic as a subset of its series of Toughbook rugged computers. The first Toughpad was unveiled on November 7, 2011 in the United States.
TransApps was a program of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the United States Department of Defense. The goal of the program was to demonstrate rapid development and fielding of secure mobile apps on the battlefield. With its agile and user-centric approach, the DARPA program specifically addressed the limitations of the slow requirements-centric software development cycle followed by many Army programs of record.