The mining industry of Tunisia focuses mainly on phosphate products such as fertilizer, industrial minerals (gypsum, clay, lime), iron ore, and salt. Mine ownership is limited to the Government of Tunisia, although operation by private entities is encouraged.
Mining has been practiced in the country since the times of the Berber, Roman, Arab, and French empires. In 1890, many areas were discovered for mining extractions. Zinc mining began in 1892, iron ore mining in 1906, and phosphate mining in 1996. [1]
In Parry's Carthage and Tunis: Past and present: In two parts (1869), he discusses mining during late Ottoman Tunisia:
There are in Tunisia two lead mines, slightly argentiferous, at Jeba and at Jeladja. Some beds of iron are at Gebel Zerissa and in several other mountains lying along the frontiers of Algeria. Most of the mines are situated in the northwest part of the regency. Marine salt is taken from several sebkas or shallow salt lakes, where it is embedded on the surface in large quantities. Gebel Hadifa contains a considerable mine of rock salt. Plaster and lime are extracted on a large scale in the central and southern provinces, and soda is furnished, especially by the district of Cairwan." [2]
During the colonial period, when Tunisia was a protectorate of France, mining was a major part of the economy, particularly in rural areas. Gendarmes were formed by the colonial police force and were used to suppress labor unrest, particularly during the Great Depression. This led to unemployment in the mining industry due to increased economic prices. [3]
By 1962, mining labor unions accounted for 11% of organized labor (second only to government employees). [4] Jobs in mining began decreasing in Tunisia during the 1970s, as operations transitioned from underground mining to open-pit mining. [5] Following the 2010 Tunisian Revolution in which President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali was deposed, mining in Tunisia declined. This was followed by nationwide labour disputes and strikes. [6] Opposition to the hiring practices at the mines of the Compagnie des phosphates de Gafsa in Gafsa resulted in a protest at the operations lasting over six months. In 2011, further protests continued for more than three years at the mines in Moularès and Redeyef, resulting in blockaded roads and the halting of mining operations. [5]
Tunisia is the fifth largest exporter of phosphates in the world. [7] Extraction of phosphate is the most important mining sector in the country, boosting the economy through exports by some 45%. The mineral sector as a whole contributes to 3% of the GDP. [8] Iron ore is extracted at the underground mine at Djerissa and also at the open-pits of Tamera and Douaria; this activity is done by the Société du Djebel Djerissa, which is a public sector undertaking. [8]
Mining in Central Tunisia and the north–south axis area, covering an area of 43,000 square kilometres (17,000 sq mi), is not fully developed, but iron ore is being extracted to a considerable degree. In the northeast of central Tunisia, extraction of fluorine and baryte have been very substantial. [1]
Mining and mineral exploration is legislated by the Tunisian Mining Code (law No. 2003–30 of April 28, 2003). Laws on fuel minerals are the Hydrocarbons Code (law No. 99–93 of August 17, 1999) and its supplement (law No. 2002–23 of February 2002). The government of Tunisia develops geological and geophysical maps through the National Office of Mines, and regulates all mining operations, which are government owned. [6] Despite the public ownership of all mines in Tunisia, private operation of the mines is promoted by the National Office of Mines. When a mining operation is started, it is granted a five-year reprieve on taxation, followed by a 25% taxation on profits. [6]
Production of phosphate rock and phosphate fertilizers are likely to increase with the commissioning of the Celamin and the TIFERT projects. Cement export is expected to get a boost with exports to Algeria. [6]
The Economy of the Empire of Japan refers to the period in Japanese economic history in Imperial Japan that began with the Meiji Restoration in 1868 and ended with the Surrender of Japan in 1945 at the end of World War II. It was characterized by a period of rapid industrialization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and the dominance of a wartime economy from 1938 to 1945.
Hydrocarbons are the leading sector in Algeria's mineral industry, which includes diverse but modest production of metals and industrial minerals. In 2006, helium production in Algeria accounted for about 13% of total world output. Hydrocarbons produced in Algeria accounted for about 2.9% of total world natural gas output and about 2.2% of total world crude oil output in 2006. Algeria held about 21% of total world identified resources of helium, 2.5% of total world natural gas reserves, and about 1% of total world crude oil reserves.
Mining is important to the economy of Ethiopia as a diversification from agriculture. Currently, mining comprises only 1% of GDP. Gold, gemstones, and industrial minerals are important commodities for the country's export-oriented growth strategy.
The mining of minerals in Nigeria accounts for only 0.3% of its gross domestic product, due to the influence of its vast oil resources. The domestic mining industry is underdeveloped, leading to Nigeria having to import minerals that it could produce domestically, such as salt or iron ore. The rights to ownership of mineral resources is held by the Federal Government of Nigeria, which grants titles to organizations to explore, mine, and sell mineral resources. Organized mining began in 1903, when the Mineral Survey of the Northern Protectorates was created by the British colonial government. A year later, the Mineral Survey of the Southern Protectorates was founded. By the 1940s, Nigeria was a major producer of tin, columbite, and coal. The discovery of oil in 1956 hurt the mineral extraction industries, as government and industry both began to focus on this new resource. The Nigerian Civil War in the late 1960s led many expatriate mining experts to leave the country. Mining regulation is handled by the Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, who are tasked with the responsibility of overseeing the management of all mineral resources in Nigeria. Mining law is codified in the Federal Minerals and Mining Act of 1999. Historically, Nigeria's mining industry was monopolized by state-owned public corporations. This led to a decline in productivity in almost all mineral industries. The Obasanjo administration began a process of selling off government-owned corporations to private investors in 1999. The Nigerian Mining Industry has picked up since the "Economic Diversification Agenda", from Oil & Gas, to Agriculture, Mining, etc., began in the country.
The mineral industry of Russia is one of the world's leading mineral industries and accounts for a large percentage of the Commonwealth of Independent States' production of a range of mineral products, including metals, industrial minerals, and mineral fuels. In 2005, Russia ranked among the leading world producers or was a significant producer of a vast range of mineral commodities, including aluminum, arsenic, cement, copper, magnesium compounds and metals, nitrogen, palladium, silicon, nickel and vanadium.
Mining in the United States has been active since the beginning of colonial times, but became a major industry in the 19th century with a number of new mineral discoveries causing a series of mining rushes. In 2015, the value of coal, metals, and industrial minerals mined in the United States was US$109.6 billion. 158,000 workers were directly employed by the mining industry.
Oil and gas dominate the extraction industries of the Republic of the Congo, also referred to as Congo-Brazzaville. The petroleum industry accounted for 89% of the country’s exports in 2010. Among African crude oil producers in 2010, The Congo ranked seventh. Nearly all of the country's hydrocarbons were produced off-shore. The minerals sector is administered by the Department of Mines and Geology. Presently no major mining activities are underway, although there are some small-scale domestic operations. However, the country does have numerous large-scale undeveloped resources. The country has recently attracted a strong influx of international companies seeking to tap into the vast mineral wealth.
The mining industry of Guinea was developed during colonial rule. The minerals extracted consisted of iron, gold, diamond, and bauxite. Guinea ranks first in the world in bauxite reserves and 6th in the extraction of high-grade bauxite, the aluminium ore. The mining industry and exports of mining products accounted for 17% of Guinea's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2010. Mining accounts for over 50% of its exports. The country accounts for 94% of Africa's mining production of bauxite. The large mineral reserve, which has mostly remained untapped, is of immense interest for international firms.
The mining industry of Eswatini vests with the Ngwenyama who authorizes mineral rights after due consultation with the Minerals Committee, which he appoints. Fiscal contribution from mining operations to Eswatini's GDP is 2% and also accounts for 2% of export earnings.
The mining industry of Libya does not contribute significantly to its economy. Mining resources are located in remote regions with limited accessibility. The fuel sector, including oil reserves and natural gas is the major revenue-generating industry.
The mining industry of Togo is centred mainly around the extraction of phosphate, ranking it 19th in world production. Other minerals extracted are diamond, gold, and limestone. More minerals identified but yet to be brought into production mode are manganese, bauxite, gypsum, iron ore, marble, rutile, and zinc. The mineral sector contributes 2.8% to the country's gross domestic product (GDP).
The mining industry of Liberia has witnessed a revival after the civil war which ended in 2003. Gold, diamonds, and iron ore form the core minerals of the mining sector with a new Mineral Development Policy and Mining Code being put in place to attract foreign investments. In 2013, the mineral sector accounted for 11% of GDP in the country and the World Bank projected a further increase in the sector by 2017.
The mining industry of Mali is dominated by gold extraction but also produces diamonds, rocksalt, phosphates, semi precious stones, bauxite, iron ore, and manganese. The importance of mining and production of raw minerals has changed throughout time and has involved many foreign stakeholders, most notably France, the former Soviet Union, and South Africa. Gold, followed by cotton, is the top export item, making it a large contributor to the country’s economy. Mineral extraction in the country is done both via industrial mining and artisanal mining, and both methods of production have had profound impacts on the economy, sociocultural landscape, and environment.
The mining industry of Senegal is mainly centred on the production of phosphates and industrial limestone. Senegal is one of the leading producers of phosphates in the world, accounting for about 6% of exports in 2006, and deposits are of a particularly high quality. In the coastal region of the country, titanium-bearing minerals have been found and the reserve is estimated at 10 million tons. The mineral sector's exports accounts for 20% of total exports of the country and constitutes 20% of the GDP.
The mining industry of Morocco is important to the national economy. Morocco is the world's largest producer of phosphate, and contains about 75% of the world's estimated reserves. Mining contributed up to 35% of exports and 5% of GDP in 2011. Foreign investors have found the investment climate, the infrastructure, fiscal situation, and political stability very favorable to continue business in the country in this sector.
The mining industry of Sudan is mostly driven by extraction fuel minerals, with petroleum accounting for a substantial contribution to the country's economy, until the autonomous region of Southern Sudan became an independent country in July 2011. Gold, iron ore, and base metals are mined in the Hassai Gold Mine and elsewhere. Chromite is another important mineral extracted from the Ingessana Hills. Other minerals extracted are gypsum, salt, and cement. Phosphate is found in Mount Kuoun and Mount Lauro in eastern Nuba. Reserves of zinc, lead, aluminium, cobalt, nickel in the form of block sulfides, and uranium are also established. Large reserves of iron ore have been established.
The mining industry of Cyprus is synonymous with copper extraction which began around 4,000 BC. Copper dominates the mining sector along with mining of iron pyrite, gold, chromites and asbestos fibers, bentonite, cement, and also petroleum. Though at one time, copper was a mainstay of the economy, as of 2012, the mining sector does not contribute in a significant way to the GNP.
The Compagnie des phosphates de Gafsa or CPG is a Tunisian phosphate mining company based in Gafsa, formed in the late 19th century during the French colonial era, and once the largest employer in the country. It was merged in 1994 with the Groupe chimique tunisien (CGT) to form the CPG-CGT group. Before the revolution of 2011 the company was the fifth largest phosphate producer in the world, but since then strikes and social unrest have caused production to drop by half.
The Société Mokta El Hadid was an iron ore mining company in Algeria, and later in other West African countries. From around 1865 until 1927 it was the largest mining company in Algeria, delivering ore of exceptional quality for processing in France. In 1878 the original Mokta El Hadid mine near Bône was said to be capable of supporting 25% of Europe's steel production. Before this mine was exhausted the company opened additional mines in Algeria. Later it extended its operations to countries such as Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, Côte-d'Ivoire and Madagascar, and mined manganese, chromium and uranium. In October 1970 the Société le Nickel, soon to become the Imétal holding company, took over the Mokta company. The company was later renamed Compagnie française de Mokta (CFM), specializing in uranium mining.
The Société du Djebel-Djérissa (SDD) is a Tunisian iron ore mining company founded in 1899 that began operations in 1907. It produced up to 700,000 tons per year of hematite ore in the years before World War II. Production dropped during the war. The company was nationalized in 1961. Today levels of output are around 200,000 tons annually.
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