Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (Tunisian Arabic: Zīn il-ʿĀbdīn bin ʿAlī, Standard Arabic: زين العابدين بن علي, romanized:Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn bin ʿAlī; 3 September 1936 – 19 September 2019), commonly known as Ben Ali or Ezzine, was a Tunisian politician who served as the second President of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011. In that year, during the Tunisian revolution, he was overthrown and fled to Saudi Arabia.
Ben Ali was appointed Prime Minister in October 1987. He assumed the Presidency on 7 November 1987 in a bloodless coup d'état that ousted President Habib Bourguiba by declaring him incompetent.[2] Ben Ali led an authoritarian regime.[3] He was reelected in several non-democratic elections where he won with enormous majorities, each time exceeding 90% of the vote, his final re-election coming on 25 October 2009.[4][3] Ben Ali was the penultimate surviving leader deposed in the Arab Spring; he was survived by Egypt's Hosni Mubarak, the latter dying in February 2020.
On 14 January 2011, following a month of protests against his rule, he fled to Saudi Arabia along with his wife Leïla Ben Ali and their three children. The interim Tunisian government asked Interpol to issue an international arrest warrant, charging him with money laundering and drug trafficking. A Tunisian court sentenced Ben Ali and his wife in absentia to 35 years in prison on 20 June 2011 on charges of theft and unlawful possession of cash and jewelry, which was put up for auction.[5][6] In June 2012, a Tunisian court sentenced him in absentia to life imprisonment for inciting violence and murder and another life sentence by a military court in April 2013 for violent repression of protests in Sfax.[7] He served none of those sentences, subsequently dying in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on 19 September 2019 at the age of 83 after nearly a decade in exile.
Early life, education and military career
Hammam Sousse, birthplace of Ben AliA young Ben Ali, as a military officer, in Tunis, 1961
Ben Ali was born in 1936 to moderate-income parents[8] as the fourth of eleven children in the family.[9] His father[1] worked as a guard at the port city of Sousse.[10]
Ben Ali joined the local resistance against French colonial forces and was imprisoned.[11] His expulsion from secondary school was the reason why he never completed his secondary education.[11] He studied at the Sousse Technical Institute but failed to earn a professional certificate[12] and joined the newly formed Tunisian Army in 1958.[13] Nevertheless, after being chosen as one among a group of young officers,[10] he was awarded training in France at the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr in Coëtquidan and the School of Applied Artillery in Châlons-sur-Marne, and also in the United States at the Senior Intelligence School in Maryland and the School for Anti-Aircraft Field Artillery in Texas. He also held a diploma in electronics engineering from a local university.[14] Returning to Tunisia in 1964, he began his professional military career the same year as a Tunisian staff officer.[13] During his time in military service, he established the Military Security Department and directed its operations for 10 years. He briefly served as military attaché in the Tunisian embassy of Morocco and Spain before being appointed General Director of National Security in 1977.[15][16]
In April 1980,[14] Ben Ali was appointed ambassador to Poland, and served in that position for four years.[17] He also served as the military intelligence chief from 1964 to 1974 and later Director General of national security between December 1977 and 1980 until he was appointed as Minister of Defense.[18][19] Soon after the Tunisian bread riots in January 1984, he was reappointed director-general of national security.[20]
Ben Ali subsequently served as Minister of State in charge of the interior before being appointed Interior Minister on 28 April 1986 then Prime Minister by President Habib Bourguiba in October 1987.[17]
On the morning of 7 November 1987, doctors attending to President Bourguiba filed an official medical report declaring him medically incapacitated and unable to fulfill the duties of the presidency. Ben Ali, next in line to the presidency, removed Bourguiba from office and assumed the presidency himself.[21][22] The day of his accession to power was celebrated annually in Tunisia as New Era Day.[23] Two of the names given to Ben Ali's rise to the presidency include "the medical coup d'état" and the "Tunisian revolution".[24][25] Ben Ali favoured the latter.[24] Ben Ali’s assumption of the presidency was in conformity with Article 57 of the Tunisian Constitution. The country had faced 10% inflation, external debt accounting for 46% of GDP and a debt service ratio of 21% of GDP.[26]
In 1999, Fulvio Martini, former head of Italian military secret service SISMI, declared to a parliamentary committee that "from 1985 to 1987, we organized a coup of sorts in Tunisia, putting President Ben Ali as head of state, replacing Bourguiba who wanted to flee". Bourguiba, although a symbol of anti-colonial resistance, was considered incapable of leading his country any longer, and his reaction to the rising Islamic integrism was deemed "a bit too energetic" by Martini; Bourguiba's threat to execute the suspects might have generated strong negative responses in neighbouring countries. Acting under directives from Italian Prime Minister Bettino Craxi and Foreign Minister Giulio Andreotti, Martini claims to have brokered the accord that led to the peaceful transition of powers.[27]
According to Martini, the SISMI did not have an operational role in Ben Ali's rise to power, but organised a move to support his new government politically and economically, preventing Tunisia from falling into an open confrontation with fundamentalists, as happened in Algeria in the following years.[28]
Alan Cowell, a prominent New York Times journalist, believed Ben Ali's initial promises of a more democratic way of ruling the country than had prevailed under Bourguiba.[29] One of his first acts upon taking office was to loosen restrictions on the press; for the first time state-controlled newspapers published statements from the opposition.[22] Ben Ali also released some political prisoners and granted them with pardons. [30] In 1988, he changed the name of the ruling Destourian Socialist Party to the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), and pushed through constitutional amendments that limited the president to three five-year terms, with no more than two in a row.
However, the conduct of the 1989 elections was little different from past elections. The RCD swept every seat in the legislature, and Ben Ali appeared alone on the ballot in Tunisia's first presidential election since 1974. Although opposition parties had been legal since 1981, presidential candidates were required to get endorsements from 30 political figures. Given the RCD's near-absolute dominance of the political scene, prospective opposition candidates discovered they could not get their nomination papers signed. The subsequent years saw the return of several Bourguiba-era restrictions. For many years, the press had been expected to practice self-censorship, but this increasingly gave way to official censorship. Amendments to the press code allowed the Interior Ministry to review all newspaper and magazine articles before publication.[31] In 1992, the president's younger brother Habib Ben Ali was tried in absentia in France for laundering the proceeds of drug trafficking, in a case known as the "couscous connection". French television news was blocked in Tunisia during the trial.[32][33]
William Cohen is welcomed by Ben Ali at the Presidential Palace in Tunis, in 2000
At the 1994 elections, opposition parties polled 2.25% and gained 19 of 163 seats in Parliament—the first-time opposition parties had actually managed to get into the chamber. Ben Ali was unopposed for a second full term, again after being the only candidate to get enough endorsements to qualify. Turnout was officially reported at 95%.[34] However, at this and subsequent elections, opposition parties never accounted for more than 24 percent of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. All legislation continued to originate with the president, and there was little meaningful opposition to executive decisions.
In 1999, Ben Ali became the first Tunisian president to actually face an opponent after the 30-signature requirement was lifted a few months earlier.[31] However, he won a third full term with an implausible 99.4 percent of the vote.
A constitutional referendum in 2002—the first ever held in Tunisia—established a two-chambered parliament, creating the Chamber of Advisers. It also allowed the president to run for an unlimited number of five-year terms and amended the upper age limit for a presidential candidate to 75 years old (previously 70). The latter measures were clearly aimed at keeping Ben Ali in office; he faced having to give up the presidency in 2004.[35][36] He was duly reelected in 2004, again by an implausibly high margin—this time 94 percent of the vote.
Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in 2002
Tunisia under Ben Ali had problems with human rights violations, such as freedom of the press, highlighted by the official treatment of the journalist Taoufik Ben Brik, who was harassed and imprisoned for his criticism of Ben Ali.[37] By the dawn of the new millennium, Ben Ali was reckoned as leading one of the most repressive regimes in the world. Under his rule, Tunisia consistently ranked near the bottom of most international rankings for human rights and press freedom.
On 25 October 2009, Ben Ali was re-elected for a fifth term with 89% of the vote.[38] The African Union sent a team of observers to cover the election. The delegation was led by Benjamin Bounkoulou, who described the election as "free and fair".[39] However, a spokesperson from the US State Department indicated that Tunisia had not permitted monitoring of the election by international observers, but that the U.S. was still committed to working with the Ben Ali and the Tunisian government.[40] There also were reports of mistreatment of an opposition candidate.[41]
In December 2010 and January 2011, riots over unemployment escalated into a widespread popular protest movement against Ben Ali's government. On 13 January 2011, he announced he would not run for another term in 2014, and pledged steps to improve the economy and loosen restrictions on the press. The following day, however, thousands demonstrated in the center of Tunis, demanding Ben Ali's immediate resignation. On 14 January 2011, Ben Ali, his wife and children[42] fled to Saudi Arabia, and a caretaker ruling committee headed by Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi was announced.
Economy
Colin Powell meeting with Ben Ali on 17 February 2004
As president, Ben Ali instituted economic reforms that increased Tunisia's growth rate and foreign investment. During his administration, Tunisia's per capita GDP more than tripled from $1,201 in 1986 to $3,786 in 2008.[43] Although growth in 2002 slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% due to drought and lackluster tourism (partly due to some tourists being nervous about flying in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks in New York), better conditions after 2003 helped push growth to about 5% of GDP. For about 20 years after 1987, the GDP annual growth averaged nearly 5%. A report published in July 2010 by the Boston Consulting Group (The African Challengers: Global Competitors Emerge from the Overlooked Continent) listed Tunisia as one of the African "Lions" and indicated the eight such countries account for 70% of the continent's gross domestic product.[44]
Steady increases in GDP growth continued through positive trade relations with the European Union, a revitalised tourism industry and sustained agricultural production. Privatization, increasing foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency and reduction of the trade deficit presented challenges for the future.[45][46] The 2010/11 Global Competitiveness Report (Davos World Economic Forum) ranked Tunisia 1st in Africa and 32nd globally out of 139 countries[47] but it dropped to 40th in 2011/12 as a result of political instability[48] and was not ranked in 2012/13.[49]
George W. Bush meets with Ben Ali in the Oval Office on 18 Feb 2004
According to the Oxford Business Group, Tunisia's economy was likely to grow from 2008 thanks to its diversified industries.[50][51]
Committed to fighting poverty at home, Ben Ali instituted reforms, including the National Solidarity Fund, which slashed the Tunisian poverty rate from 7.4% in 1990 to an estimated 3.8% in 2005.[52] The National Solidarity Fund was part of a dual strategy to fight current and potential terrorism through economic assistance, development and the rule of law, but also increased opportunities for corruption and clientelism.[53] The fund provided opportunities to those living in impoverished areas and are vulnerable to recruitment by terrorists. It was a critical element in the fight against terrorism.[54]
However, Tunisia continued to suffer from high unemployment, especially among youth. Left out of the recent prosperity were many rural and urban poor, including small businesses facing the world market. This and the blocking of free speech were the causes of the Tunisian revolution.[citation needed]
Diplomacy
Donald H. Rumsfeld and Peter Rodman meet with Ben Ali in Tunis, in February 2006
During Ben Ali's presidency, Tunisia pursued a moderate foreign policy promoting peaceful settlement of conflicts. Tunisia took a middle of the road approach contributing to peacemaking, especially in the Middle East and Africa. Tunisia hosted the first-ever Palestinian American dialogue. While contributing actively to the Middle East peace process, Tunisian diplomacy has supported the Palestinian cause. As host to the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1982–1993, Ben Ali's government tried to moderate the views of that organisation.[55] Tunisia, since the early 1990s, called for a "concerted" international effort against terrorism. It was also a key US partner in the effort to fight global terrorism through the Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative.[56] Ben Ali mostly retained his predecessor's pro-western foreign policy, though he improved ties with the Arab and Muslim world. He took several initiatives to promote solidarity, dialogue and cooperation among nations. Ben Ali initiated the creation of the United Nations World Solidarity Fund to eradicate poverty and promote social development based on the successful experience of the Tunisian National Solidarity Fund.[57][58] Ben Ali also played a lead role in the UN's proclaiming 2010 as the International Year of Youth.[59]
International characterisations
Ben Ali's portrait thrown into trash
Ben Ali's government was considered to have one of the worst human rights records in the world. It largely bucked the trend toward greater democracy in Africa. The level of repression became particularly severe during what would be the last decade of his rule. Ben Ali's government was deemed dictatorial, authoritarian and undemocratic by international human rights groups such as Amnesty International, Freedom House, and Protection International. They criticised Tunisian officials for not observing international standards of political rights[60][61][62] and interfering with the work of local human rights organisations.[63] In The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, Tunisia was classified as an authoritarian regime, ranking 144th out of 167 countries studied. In 2008, in terms of freedom of the press, Tunisia was ranked 143 out of 173.[64][65]
In response to the protests, Ben Ali declared a state of emergency, dissolved the government on 14 January 2011, and promised new legislative elections within six months. However, events moved quickly, and it appears the armed forces and key members of the legislature had lost confidence in Ben Ali and had decided to take steps of their own. With power slipping from Ben Ali's grasp, prime minister Mohamed Ghannouchi announced that he would act as head of state during the president's "temporary" absence. With the army surrounding the Presidential Palace in Tunis, Ben Ali and close members of his family hastily left and headed to Laouina airport (annexed to the Tunis–Carthage International Airport). The military allowed Ben Ali's plane to take off, immediately after which the Tunisian airspace was closed. The presidential plane then left for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Subsequent reports in the media rumoured that Ben Ali was seeking protection in either France or Malta, although a Tunisian pilot who was involved in the arrangement of the flight stated that the plan was "to fly directly to Jeddah", which is also supported by recordings released by the BBC in 2022.[66][67] Ben Ali and his family were accepted by King Abdullah to live in Saudi Arabia under the condition that he should keep out of politics. Ben Ali and his family went to exile in Jeddah, the same city where Idi Amin, the late dictator of Uganda, lived in exile until his death in 2003 after being removed from power in 1979 at the end of the Uganda–Tanzania War.[68]
Other close associates and family members who attempted to leave the country via Tunis-Carthage were prevented from doing so by the army, which had seized the airport.[69][70]
Succession confusion
A banner demanding the resignation of Ben Ali in French
At about 18:00, Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi went on state television to say "Since the president is temporarily unable to exercise his duties, it has been decided that the prime minister will temporarily exercise the (presidential) duties."[71]
However, this arrangement was very short-lived, because early the following day (15 January 2011), the Constitutional Council of Tunisia determined that Ben Ali was not "temporarily unable" to exercise his duties and that the presidency was in fact vacant. The arrangements he had made with the Prime Minister before leaving the country were found to be unconstitutional under article 57 of the constitution. The country's constitutional council, at the time the highest legal authority on constitutional matters, announced the transition saying that Fouad Mebazaa, the Speaker of Parliament, had been appointed acting president.[71]
Mebazaa took the oath in his office in parliament, swearing to respect the constitution in the presence of his senate counterpart, Abdallal Kallel, and representatives of both houses. It was also announced that the speaker of parliament would occupy the post of president temporarily and that elections would be held within a period of between 45 and 60 days.[71]
Flight and trial in absentia
On 26 January 2011, the Tunisian government issued an international arrest warrant for Ben Ali, accusing him of taking money out of the nation illegally and illegally acquiring real estate and other assets abroad, Justice Minister Lazhar Karoui Chebbi said.[72] Videos show that the president stashed cash and jewellery in the president's palace. The gold and jewellery will be redistributed to the people by the government.[73] The Swiss government announced that it was freezing millions of dollars held in bank accounts by his family.[74] On 28 January 2011, Interpol issued an arrest warrant for Ben Ali and his six family members, including his wife Leïla.[75]
After Ben Ali fled Tunisia following the Tunisian revolution, he and his wife were tried in absentia for his suspected involvement in some of the country's largest businesses during his 23-year-long reign.[6] On 20 June 2011, Ben Ali and his wife were sentenced to 35 years in prison after being found guilty of theft and unlawful possession of cash and jewelry.[5][6] The verdict also included a penalty of 91million Tunisian dinars (approximately €50million, and $64 million) that Ben Ali was required to pay.[5] This verdict was dismissed as a "charade" by some Tunisians dissatisfied with the trial and as a "joke" by Ben Ali's lawyer.[76] The sentences were to take immediate effect, although Ben Ali and his wife were living in Saudi Arabia and the Saudi government ignored Tunisia's requests to extradite them.[76]
In November 2016, Ben Ali made a statement via the office of his lawyer, Mounir Ben Salha, acknowledging his regime made "errors, abuses and violations".[77] His statement came as a reaction to the public hearing sessions made by the Truth and Dignity Commission in Tunisia.[citation needed]
Ben Ali and his family were accused of corruption,[78] which was a major contribution to the Tunisian Revolution which led to the fall of his government. Many of Ben Ali's family members subsequently also fled the country. On 20 January 2011, Tunisian television reported that 33 members of Ben Ali's family had been arrested in the past week, as they tried to flee the country.[79]
Leïla Ben Ali was the chair of the BASMA Association, a group that promotes social integration and provides employment opportunities for the disabled.[80] She was also the president of the Arab Women Organization, which works to empower women in Arab states.[81] She has three children: Nesrine, Halima and Mohamed Zine El Abidine. Ben Ali has three daughters from his first marriage: Ghazwa, Dorsaf and Cyrine.
Health condition and death
On 17 February 2011, it was reported that Ben Ali had suffered a stroke, and had been hospitalised for an indefinite period.[82]Al Jazeera reported that a Saudi source had confirmed that Ben Ali had indeed sustained severe complications of a stroke and that he was in critical condition.[83] The information has never been confirmed or denied by the Saudi government. However, on 17 June 2011, Ben Ali's attorney, Jean-Yves Leborgne, stated that Ben Ali "is not in the state that he's said to be in" and that "a meeting with his client took place under 'normal circumstances'".[84]
The politics of Tunisia takes place within the framework of a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic, with a president serving as head of state, prime minister as head of government, a unicameral legislature and a court system influenced by French civil law. Between 1956 and 2011, Tunisia operated as a de facto one-party state, with politics dominated by the secular Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) under former presidents Habib Bourguiba and then Zine el Abidine Ben Ali. However, in 2011 a national uprising led to the ousting of Ben Ali and the dismantling of the RCD, paving the way for a multi-party democracy. October 2014 saw the first democratic parliamentary elections since the 2011 revolution, resulting in a win by the secularist Nidaa Tounes party with 85 seats in the 217-member assembly.
Mohamed Ghannouchi is a Tunisian politician who was Prime Minister of Tunisia from 1999 to 2011. Regarded as a technocrat, Ghannouchi was a long-standing figure in the Tunisian government under President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. He also served as the President of Tunisia from 14 to 15 January 2011, holding the powers and duties of the office nominally for the absent President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, who had fled the country due to the 2011 revolution. On 15 January 2011 the presidency was declared vacant by the Constitutional Court and Ben Ali's term was officially terminated, leading to Speaker of Parliament Fouad Mebazaa taking office as Acting President. Ghannouchi stayed on as prime minister for six more weeks after Ben Ali's overthrow before himself resigning.
The Democratic Constitutional Rally or Democratic Constitutional Assembly, also referred to by its French initials RCD, a political party in Tunisia. If including its predecessors Neo Destour and the Socialist Destourian Party, it was the ruling party of the country from independence in 1956 until it was overthrown and dissolved in the Tunisian revolution in 2011.
The president of Tunisia, officially the president of the Republic of Tunisia, is the head of state since the creation of the position on 25 July 1957. In this capacity, he exercises executive power with the assistance of a government headed by the prime minister in a presidential system. According to Article 87 of the 2022 Constitution, he is the commander-in-chief of the Tunisian Armed Forces. Under the Constitution, the president is elected by direct universal suffrage for a term of five years, renewable once.
Abdelwahab Abdallah is a Tunisian politician and diplomat who served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Tunisia and was advisor to the President.
Rachid Sfar was a Tunisian politician who served as Prime Minister under the presidency of Habib Bourguiba.
The Socialist Destourian Party was the ruling political party of Tunisia from 1964 to 1988. Bahi Ladgham was the first Prime Minister from the party and Hédi Baccouche was the last. It was founded on 22 October 1964 and disbanded on 27 February 1988. Habib Bourgiba was the first president of the Socialist Destourian Party from 1964 to 1987. He was succeeded by Zine El Abidine Ben Ali from 1987 to 1988.
In its modern history, Tunisia is a sovereign republic, officially called the Republic of Tunisia. Tunisia has over ten million citizens, almost all of Arab-Berber descent. The Mediterranean Sea is to the north and east, Libya to the southeast, and Algeria to the west. Tunis is the capital and the largest city ; it is located near the ancient site of the city of Carthage.
Tabarka–Aïn Draham International Airport, formerly Tabarka–7 November International Airport, is a public sector airport serving Tabarka in Tunisia.
Sakher El Materi is a Tunisian businessman. He is the son-in-law of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, who was President of Tunisia until 2011. In 2010, Materi's company Princesse El-Materi Holdings was operating in six industry sectors: News and Media, Banking and Financial Services, Automotive, Shipping and Cruises, Real Estate and Agriculture. A member of the ruling Constitutional Democratic Rally, he was elected as a Member of the Chamber of Deputies of Tunisia for the constituency of Tunis on 25 October 2009. He was struck off by the party after the 2011 Tunisian Revolution. After the revolution El Materi fled the country and went to the Seychelles.
Leïla Ben Ali ; née Trabelsi ; born 14 October 1956) is the widow of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the President of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011, whom she married in 1992.
Carthage Palace is the presidential palace of Tunisia, and the official residence and seat of the President of Tunisia. It is located along the Mediterranean Sea at the current city of Carthage, near the archaeological site of the ancient city, fifteen kilometers from Tunis. A house by Le Corbusier sits within the site.
Ali Laarayedh is a Tunisian politician who was Prime Minister of Tunisia from 2013 to 2014. Previously he served in the government as the Minister of the Interior from 2011 to 2013. Following the resignation of Prime Minister Hamadi Jebali, Laarayedh was designated as prime minister in February 2013. He is a member of the Ennahda Movement.
Moncef Ben Salem was a Tunisian politician and university professor. He served as the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research under Prime Minister Hamadi Jebali.
Salah Ben Youssef was a Tunisian politician and one of the key leaders of the Tunisian national movement.
The 1987 Tunisian coup d'état involved the bloodless ousting of the aging President of Tunisia Habib Bourguiba on 7 November 1987, and his replacement as President by his recently appointed Prime Minister, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. The action was justified by reference to Bourguiba's failing health and Article 57 of the country's constitution. Reports later surfaced to indicate that the Italian intelligence services had been involved in planning it.
Socialism in Tunisia or Tunisian socialism is a political philosophy that is shared by various political parties of the country. It has played a role in the country's history from the time of the Tunisian independence movement against France up through the Tunisian Revolution to the present day.
Ali Ben Salem or Ali Kchouk was a Tunisian human rights activist and anti-colonialist, born in Bizerte. He was an opponent of the regimes of Presidents Habib Bourguiba and Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali. Ali Ben Salem was considered the oldest human rights activist in Tunisia. While he was the president of the Bizertine section of the Tunisian Human Rights League, he co-founded the National Council for Freedoms and the Association against Torture in Tunisia.
Naïma Ben Ali ; née Kefi is the former First Lady of Tunisia as the first wife of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, serving from 1987 until her divorce from Ben Ali in 1988.
↑ Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2013). "The Other Side of a Neoliberal Miracle: Economic Reform and Political De-Liberalization in Ben Ali's Tunisia". Mediterranean Politics. 18 (1): 23–41. doi:10.1080/13629395.2012.761475. S2CID154822868.
↑ Edwards, Alex (July–August 2012). "Understanding Dictators"(PDF). The Majalla. 1574: 32–37. Archived from the original(PDF) on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
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Tunisia 
