Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids ( E471) refers to a naturally occurring class of food additive composed of diglycerides and monoglycerides used as an emulsifier in foods such as infant formula, fresh pasta, jams and jellies, chocolate, creams, baked goods, and more. [1] It is also used as a fruit coating agent. This mixture is also sometimes referred to as partial glycerides.
Monoglycerides and diglycerides are types of glycerides both naturally present in food fats, [2] including various seed oils; [3] however, their concentration is usually low and industrial production is primarily achieved by a glycerolysis reaction between triglycerides (fats/oils) and glycerol, [4] followed by purification via solvent-free molecular distillation. The raw materials of mono- and diglycerides may be either vegetable or animal fats and oils.
E471 is mainly produced from vegetable oils (such as soybean, grapeseed, canola, sunflower, cottonseed, coconut, and palm oil) and plant pomace such as grape pomace or tomato pomace [5] ), although animal fats are sometimes used and cannot be completely excluded as being present in the product. [6] The fatty acids from each source are chemically identical. [7] The Vegan Society, which discourages eating animal-based foods, flags E471 as potentially animal based. [8]
The World Health Organization’s (WHO) report on the toxicological evaluation of mono- and diglycerides states that, “Food fats are in the main triglycerides. However, many of them have been shown to contain small amounts of diglycerides and monoglycerides. The amount present is commonly in the region of 1%. There is some evidence also that further amounts of these partial glycerides may be formed during the preparation of certain foods. Therefore, apart from any addition of these substances to food for technological purposes, they will always be present in the food as consumed.”
Mono- and diglycerides are naturally digested as part of normal lipid metabolism (i.e., the natural digestion of dietary fats and oils).
The safety of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids has been assessed by several regulatory authorities. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has set an “acceptable daily intake” (ADI) as “not limited” due to the safety of these ingredients. [9] In 2017, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) re-evaluated the safety of mono- and diglycerides and concluded that there is no need to establish a numerical ADI and there is no safety concern for the reported food uses. [10]
Additionally, the Center for Science in the Public Interest, a consumer interest group that previously campaigned for the elimination of sulfite preservatives in fresh foods, as well as campaigned to label -- and eventually eliminate -- artificial trans fat found in partially hydrogenated oils) ranks mono- and diglycerides as “safe” in their Chemical Cuisine Ratings. [11]
A French observational study of several food additives published in 2024 suggested a correlation but not a causation between a higher intake of E471 in highly processed foods and increased risk of cancer by 15%, particularly breast cancer (24%) and prostate cancer (46%). [12] The study also notes, that “Cancer is a multifactorial pathology, thus as expected, one specific nutritional factor (here, exposure to an emulsifier) does not drastically increase absolute risks per se.”
In the late 2010s, the company Apeel Sciences entered the market in parts of South America, China, and Japan with monoacylglycerols as an alternative to fruit waxing and plastic films to prevent withering and conserving fruit and vegetables for transport and storage. [13] [14]
In nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.
A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids. Triglycerides are the main constituents of body fat in humans and other vertebrates, as well as vegetable fat. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, and are a major component of human skin oils.
Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that are required by humans and other animals for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized in the body–either at all or in sufficient quantities – and thus must be obtained from a dietary source. Essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular metabolic processes and for the maintenance and function of tissues and organs.
Margarine is a spread used for flavoring, baking, and cooking. It is most often used as a substitute for butter. Although originally made from animal fats, most margarine consumed today is made from vegetable oil. The spread was originally named oleomargarine from Latin for oleum and Greek margarite. The name was later shortened to margarine.
Glycerides, also known as acylglycerols, are esters formed from glycerol and fatty acids, and are generally very hydrophobic.
DATEM is an emulsifier primarily used in baking to strengthen the gluten network in dough. It is added to crusty breads, such as rye, to impart a springy, chewy texture. It is also used in the production of biscuits, coffee whiteners, salsa con queso, ice cream, and salad dressings.
Saponification value or saponification number represents the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) required to saponify one gram of fat under the conditions specified. It is a measure of the average molecular weight of all the fatty acids present in the sample in form of triglycerides. The higher the saponification value, the lower the fatty acids average length, the lighter the mean molecular weight of triglycerides and vice versa. Practically, fats or oils with high saponification value are more suitable for soap making.
Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil pressed from the seeds of the sunflower. Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in cosmetic formulations as an emollient.
Monoglycerides are a class of glycerides which are composed of a molecule of glycerol linked to a fatty acid via an ester bond. As glycerol contains both primary and secondary alcohol groups two different types of monoglycerides may be formed; 1-monoacylglycerols where the fatty acid is attached to a primary alcohol, or a 2-monoacylglycerols where the fatty acid is attached to the secondary alcohol.
tert-Butylhydroquinone is a synthetic aromatic organic compound which is a type of phenol. It is a derivative of hydroquinone, substituted with a tert-butyl group.
Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), E476, is an emulsifier made from glycerol and fatty acids. In chocolate, compound chocolate and similar coatings, PGPR is mainly used with another substance like lecithin to reduce viscosity. It is used at low levels, and works by decreasing the friction between the solid particles in molten chocolate, reducing the yield stress so that it flows more easily, approaching the behaviour of a Newtonian fluid. It can also be used as an emulsifier in spreads and in salad dressings, or to improve the texture of baked goods. It is made up of a short chain of glycerol molecules connected by ether bonds, with ricinoleic acid side chains connected by ester bonds.
In organic chemistry glycerolysis refers to any process in which chemical bonds are broken via a reaction with glycerol. The term refers almost exclusively to the transesterification reaction of glycerol with triglycerides (fats/oils) to form mixtures of monoglycerides and diglycerides. These find a variety of uses; as food emulsifiers, 'low fat' cooking oils and surfactants.
Glycerol monostearate, commonly known as GMS, is a monoglyceride commonly used as an emulsifier in foods. It takes the form of a white, odorless, and sweet-tasting flaky powder that is hygroscopic. Chemically it is the glycerol ester of stearic acid. It is also used as hydration powder in exercise formulas
Lactylates are organic compounds that are FDA approved for use as food additives and cosmetic ingredients, e.g. as food-grade emulsifiers. These additives are non-toxic, biodegradable, and typically manufactured using biorenewable feedstocks. Owing to their safety and versatile functionality, lactylates are used in a wide variety of food and non-food applications. In the United States, the Food Chemicals Codex specifies the labeling requirements for food ingredients including lactylates. In the European Union, lactylates must be labelled in accordance with the requirements of the applicable EU regulation. Lactylates may be labelled as calcium stearoyl lactylate (CSL), sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL), or lactylic esters of fatty acids (LEFA).
A diglyceride, or diacylglycerol (DAG), is a glyceride consisting of two fatty acid chains covalently bonded to a glycerol molecule through ester linkages. Two possible forms exist, 1,2-diacylglycerols and 1,3-diacylglycerols. Diglycerides are natural components of food fats, though minor in comparison to triglycerides. DAGs can act as surfactants and are commonly used as emulsifiers in processed foods. DAG-enriched oil has been investigated extensively as a fat substitute due to its ability to suppress the accumulation of body fat; with total annual sales of approximately USD 200 million in Japan since its introduction in the late 1990s till 2009.
Sucrose esters or sucrose fatty acid esters are a group of non-naturally occurring surfactants chemically synthesized from the esterification of sucrose and fatty acids. This group of substances is remarkable for the wide range of hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) that it covers. The polar sucrose moiety serves as a hydrophilic end of the molecule, while the long fatty acid chain serves as a lipophilic end of the molecule. Due to this amphipathic property, sucrose esters act as emulsifiers; i.e., they have the ability to bind both water and oil simultaneously. Depending on the HLB value, some can be used as water-in-oil emulsifiers, and some as oil-in-water emulsifiers. Sucrose esters are used in cosmetics, food preservatives, food additives, and other products. A class of sucrose esters with highly substituted hydroxyl groups, olestra, is also used as a fat replacer in food.
Apeel Sciences is an American food technology company based in Goleta, California. Its edible coating product Apeel or Edipeel can make avocados, citrus and other types of fruit last twice as long as usual by using a tasteless edible coating, and reduces food loss and waste as well as reliance on single-use plastic packaging.
Trans fat, also called trans-unsaturated fatty acids, or trans fatty acids, is a type of unsaturated fat that occurs in foods. Trace concentrations of trans fats occur naturally, but large amounts are found in some processed foods. Since consumption of trans fats is unhealthy, artificial trans fats are highly regulated or banned in many nations. However, they are still widely consumed in developing nations, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths each year. The World Health Organization (WHO) had set a goal to make the world free from industrially produced trans fat by the end of 2023. The goal was not met, and the WHO announced another goal "for accelerated action till 2025 to complete this effort" along with associated support on 1 February 2024.
Fat hydrogenation is the process of combining unsaturated fat with hydrogen in order to partially or completely convert it into saturated fat. Typically this hydrogenation is done with liquid vegetable oils resulting in solid or semi-solid fats.
Mono-/diglycerides are made by partially hydrolysing vegetable fats, such as soybean oil, and palm oil. (Animal-fat-based emulsifiers are not commonly used because they are not suitable for vegetarian and certain religious diets).
Chemically the fatty acids from animal or plant origin are identical. Therefore the origin is of no importance for the function in the food. Producers thus normally choose the cheapest oils to make these fats. This is generally some vegetable oil. However, animal fats can not be excluded.