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Particle physics or high energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions and bosons. There are three generations of fermions, although ordinary matter is made only from the first fermion generation. The first generation consists of up and down quarks which form protons and neutrons, and electrons and electron neutrinos. The three fundamental interactions known to be mediated by bosons are electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction.
The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is an intergovernmental organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, it is based in a northwestern suburb of Geneva, on the France–Switzerland border. It comprises 23 member states. Israel, admitted in 2013, is the only non-European full member. CERN is an official United Nations General Assembly observer.
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, originally named the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, is a federally funded research and development center in Menlo Park, California, United States. Founded in 1962, the laboratory is now sponsored by the United States Department of Energy and administrated by Stanford University. It is the site of the Stanford Linear Accelerator, a 3.2 kilometer (2-mile) linear accelerator constructed in 1966 that could accelerate electrons to energies of 50 GeV.
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), located just outside Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics. Since 2007, Fermilab has been operated by the Fermi Research Alliance (FRA), a joint venture of the University of Chicago, and the Universities Research Association (URA); although in 2023, the Department of Energy (DOE) opened bidding for a new contractor due to concerns about the FRA performance. Fermilab is a part of the Illinois Technology and Research Corridor.
The tau, also called the tau lepton, tau particle, tauon or tau electron, is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with negative electric charge and a spin of 1/2. Like the electron, the muon, and the three neutrinos, the tau is a lepton, and like all elementary particles with half-integer spin, the tau has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite charge but equal mass and spin. In the tau's case, this is the "antitau". Tau particles are denoted by the symbol
τ−
and the antitaus by
τ+
.
ISABELLE was a 200+200 GeV proton–proton colliding beam particle accelerator partially built by the United States government at Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York, before it was cancelled in July, 1983.
The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) was one of the largest particle accelerators ever constructed. It was built at CERN, a multi-national centre for research in nuclear and particle physics near Geneva, Switzerland.
In particle physics, a glueball is a hypothetical composite particle. It consists solely of gluon particles, without valence quarks. Such a state is possible because gluons carry color charge and experience the strong interaction between themselves. Glueballs are extremely difficult to identify in particle accelerators, because they mix with ordinary meson states. In pure gauge theory, glueballs are the only states of the spectrum and some of them are stable.
The Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) is a concept for a future linear particle accelerator that aims to explore the next energy frontier. CLIC would collide electrons with positrons and is currently the only mature option for a multi-TeV linear collider. The accelerator would be between 11 and 50 km long, more than ten times longer than the existing Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC) in California, USA. CLIC is proposed to be built at CERN, across the border between France and Switzerland near Geneva, with first beams starting by the time the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has finished operations around 2035.
The High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, known as KEK, is a Japanese organization whose purpose is to operate the largest particle physics laboratory in Japan, situated in Tsukuba, Ibaraki prefecture. It was established in 1997. The term "KEK" is also used to refer to the laboratory itself, which employs approximately 695 employees. KEK's main function is to provide the particle accelerators and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics, material science, structural biology, radiation science, computing science, nuclear transmutation and so on. Numerous experiments have been constructed at KEK by the internal and international collaborations that have made use of them. Makoto Kobayashi, emeritus professor at KEK, is known globally for his work on CP-violation, and was awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics.
The Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (BINP) is one of the major centres of advanced study of nuclear physics in Russia. It is located in the Siberian town Akademgorodok, on Academician Lavrentiev Avenue. The institute was founded by Gersh Budker in 1959. Following his death in 1977, the institute was renamed in honour of Budker.
DELPHI was one of the four main detectors of the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, one of the largest particle accelerators ever made. Like the other three detectors, it recorded and analyzed the result of the collision between LEP's colliding particle beams. The specific focus of DELPHI was on particle identification, three-dimensional information, high granularity (detail), and precise vertex determination.
OPAL was one of the major experiments at CERN's Large Electron–Positron Collider. OPAL studied particles and their interactions by collecting and analysing electron-positron collisions. There were over three-hundred physicists from 32 institutions involved in the collaboration.
The Low Energy Anti-Proton Ring (LEAR) was a particle accelerator at CERN which operated from 1982 until 1996. The ring was designed to decelerate and store antiprotons, to study the properties of antimatter and to create atoms of antihydrogen. Antiprotons for the ring were created by the CERN Proton Synchrotron via the Antiproton Collector and the Antiproton Accumulator (AA). The creation of at least nine atoms of antihydrogen were confirmed by the PS210 experiment in 1995.
The Beijing Electron–Positron Collider II is a Chinese electron–positron collider, a type of particle accelerator, located in Shijingshan District, Beijing, People's Republic of China. It has been in operation since 2008 and has a circumference of 240.4 m.
OKA is a particle physics detector experiment at the U-70 accelerator in the Institute for High Energy Physics located in Protvino near Moscow (Russia). OKA is specialized experiment with separated charge kaons beam.
The INFN National Laboratory of Frascati (LNF) was founded in 1954 with the objective of furthering particle physics research, and more specifically to host the 1.1 GeV electrosynchrotron, the first accelerator ever built in Italy. The Laboratory later developed the first ever electron-positron collider: from the first prototype AdA, which demonstrated the feasibility, to the ring ADONE and later on to DAΦNE, still operative today (2022). LNF was also the proposed site of the cancelled particle accelerator SuperB.
In particle physics, true muonium is a theoretically predicted exotic atom representing a bound state of an muon and an antimuon (μ+μ−). The existence of true muonium is well established theoretically within the Standard Model. Its properties within the Standard Model are determined by quantum electrodynamics, and may be modified by physics beyond the Standard Model.
SuperKEKB is a particle collider located at KEK (High Energy Accelerator Research Organisation) in Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. SuperKEKB collides electrons with positrons at the centre-of-momentum energy close to the mass of the Υ(4S) resonance making it a second-generation B-factory for the Belle II experiment. The accelerator is an upgrade to the KEKB accelerator, providing approximately 40 times higher luminosity, due mostly to superconducting quadrupole focusing magnets. The accelerator achieved "first turns" (first circulation of electron and positron beams) in February 2016. First collisions occurred on 26 April 2018. At 20:34 on 15 June 2020, SuperKEKB achieved the world’s highest instantaneous luminosity for a colliding-beam accelerator, setting a record of 2.22×1034 cm−2s−1.
An accelerator neutrino is a human-generated neutrino or antineutrino obtained using particle accelerators, in which beam of protons is accelerated and collided with a fixed target, producing mesons which then decay into neutrinos. Depending on the energy of the accelerated protons and whether mesons decay in flight or at rest it is possible to generate neutrinos of a different flavour, energy and angular distribution. Accelerator neutrinos are used to study neutrino interactions and neutrino oscillations taking advantage of high intensity of neutrino beams, as well as a possibility to control and understand their type and kinematic properties to a much greater extent than for neutrinos from other sources.
References
- 1 2 Valdivia García, M.A; et al. (2016). "Towards A Monochromatization Scheme for Direct Higgs Production at FCC-ee" (PDF). In Petit-Jean-Genaz, C. (ed.). IPAC2016 Proceedings of the 7th International Particle Accelerator. doi:10.18429/JACoW-IPAC2016-WEPMW009. ISBN 978-3-95450-147-2.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) - 1 2 Jowett, J. M. (1994). "Lattice and interaction region design for Tau-Charm factories". Frontiers of Particle Beams: Factories with e+e− Rings. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 425. pp. 79–105. Bibcode:1994LNP...425...79J. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.615.8854 . doi:10.1007/3540565884_5. ISBN 978-3-540-56588-8.
- 1 2 3 Renieri, A. (1975). "Possibility of Achieving Very High-Energy Resolution in electron-Positron Storage Rings" (PDF). Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati.
- ↑ Bassetti, M.; et al. (1974). "ADONE: Present Status and Experiments" (PDF). In Neal, R. (ed.). Proceedings, 9th International Conference on the High-Energy Accelerators (HEACC 1974) : Stanford, California, May 2-7, 1974. pp. 104–107.
- ↑ Avdienko, A. A.; et al. (1983). "The Project Of Modernization Of The Vepp-4 Storage Ring For Monochromatic Experiments In The Energy Range Of Psi And Upsilon Mesons". In Cole, F. T.; Donaldson, R. (eds.). Proceedings, 12th International Conference on High-Energy Accelerators, HEACC 1983 : Fermilab, Batavia, August 11-16, 1983. pp. 186–189.
- ↑ Wille, K.; Chao, A. W. (1984). "Investigation of a Monochromator Scheme for SPEAR" (PDF). Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.
- ↑ Alexahin, Yu. I.; Dubrovin, A.N.; Zholents, A. A. (1990). "Proposal on a tau charm factory with monochromatization" (PDF). In Mandrillon, P.; Marin, P. (eds.). Proceedings, 2nd European Particle Accelerator Conference (EPAC 90): Nice, France, June 12-16, 1990.
- ↑ Bassetti, M.; Jowett, J. M. (1987). "Improving the Energy Resolution of LEP Experiments" (PDF). In Lindstrom, E. R.; Taylor, L.S. (eds.). Proceedings of the 1987 IEEE Particle Accelerator Conference (PAC1987): Accelerator Engineering and Technology, March 16-19, 1987 Washington, D.C. p. 115.
- ↑ Zholents, A. A. (1992). "Polarized J/ψ mesons at a tau-charm factory with a monochromator scheme" (PDF). European Laboratory for Particle Physics.
- ↑ Faus-Golfe, A.; Le Duff, J. (1996). "Versatile DBA and TBA lattices for a Tau-Charm factory with and without beam monochromatization". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A . 372 (1–2): 6–18. Bibcode:1996NIMPA.372....6F. doi:10.1016/0168-9002(95)01275-3.