SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

Last updated

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
SLAC LogoSD.svg
Primary logo
SLAC aerial.jpg
Aerial view of former linear accelerator
Established1962;62 years ago (1962)
Research type Physical sciences
Budget $383 million (2017) [1]
Field of research
 Accelerator physics
Photon science
Director John L. Sarrao
Staff 1,684
Address2575 Sand Hill Rd.
Menlo Park, CA 94025
Location Menlo Park, California, United States
37°25′03″N122°12′09″W / 37.41750°N 122.20250°W / 37.41750; -122.20250
Campus 172 ha (426 acres)
NicknameSLAC
Affiliations U.S. Department of Energy
Operating agency
 Stanford University
Burton Richter
Richard E. Taylor
Martin L. Perl
Website slac.stanford.edu
Map
USA California location map.svg
Red pog.svg
Location in California
Stanford Linear Accelerator
Stanford-linear-accelerator-usgs-ortho-kaminski-5900.jpg
General properties
Accelerator type linear accelerator
Beam type electrons
Target typefixed target
Beam properties
Maximum energy50 GeV
Physical properties
Length3.2 km (2.0 mi)
Location Menlo Park, California
Institution Stanford University, US-DOE
Dates of operation1966–2006
Succeeded byLCLS

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, originally named the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, [2] [3] is a federally funded research and development center in Menlo Park, California, United States. Founded in 1962, the laboratory is now sponsored by the United States Department of Energy and administrated by Stanford University. It is the site of the Stanford Linear Accelerator, a 3.2 kilometer (2-mile) linear accelerator constructed in 1966 that could accelerate electrons to energies of 50 GeV.

Contents

Today SLAC research centers on a broad program in atomic and solid-state physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine using X-rays from synchrotron radiation and a free-electron laser as well as experimental and theoretical research in elementary particle physics, astroparticle physics, and cosmology. The laboratory is under the programmatic direction of the United States Department of Energy Office of Science.

History

The entrance to SLAC in Menlo Park SLAC Gate Sign.jpg
The entrance to SLAC in Menlo Park

Founded in 1962 as the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, the facility is located on 172 ha (426 acres) of Stanford University-owned land on Sand Hill Road in Menlo Park, California, just west of the university's main campus. The main accelerator is 3.2 km (2 mi) long, making it the longest linear accelerator in the world, and has been operational since 1966.

Research at SLAC has produced three Nobel Prizes in Physics Nobel Prize.png
Research at SLAC has produced three Nobel Prizes in Physics

Research at SLAC has produced three Nobel Prizes in Physics:

SLAC's meeting facilities also provided a venue for the Homebrew Computer Club and other pioneers of the home computer revolution of the late 1970s and early 1980s.

In 1984, the laboratory was named an ASME National Historic Engineering Landmark and an IEEE Milestone. [7]

SLAC developed and, in December 1991, began hosting the first World Wide Web server outside of Europe. [8]

In the early-to-mid 1990s, the Stanford Linear Collider (SLC) investigated the properties of the Z boson using the Stanford Large Detector.

As of 2005, SLAC employed over 1,000 people, some 150 of whom were physicists with doctorate degrees, and served over 3,000 visiting researchers yearly, operating particle accelerators for high-energy physics and the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL) for synchrotron light radiation research, which was "indispensable" in the research leading to the 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry awarded to Stanford Professor Roger D. Kornberg. [9]

In October 2008, the Department of Energy announced that the center's name would be changed to SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. The reasons given include a better representation of the new direction of the lab and the ability to trademark the laboratory's name. Stanford University had legally opposed the Department of Energy's attempt to trademark "Stanford Linear Accelerator Center". [2] [10]

In March 2009, it was announced that the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory was to receive $68.3 million in Recovery Act Funding to be disbursed by Department of Energy's Office of Science. [11]

In October 2016, Bits and Watts launched as a collaboration between SLAC and Stanford University to design "better, greener electric grids". SLAC later pulled out over concerns about an industry partner, the state-owned Chinese electric utility. [12]

In April of 2024, SLAC completed two decades of work constructing the world's largest digital camera for the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) project at the Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Chile. The camera is expected to become operational in 2025. [13]

Components

SLAC 3 km-long (2 mi) Klystron Gallery above the beamline Accelerator SLAC long view.jpg
SLAC 3 km-long (2 mi) Klystron Gallery above the beamline Accelerator

Accelerator

Part of the SLAC beamline SLAC tunnel 2.jpg
Part of the SLAC beamline

The main accelerator was an RF linear accelerator that accelerated electrons and positrons up to 50 GeV. At 3.2 km (2.0 mi) long, the accelerator was the longest linear accelerator in the world, and was claimed to be "the world's most straight object." [14] until 2017 when the European x-ray free electron laser opened. The main accelerator is buried 9 m (30 ft) below ground [15] and passes underneath Interstate Highway 280. The above-ground klystron gallery atop the beamline, was the longest building in the United States until the LIGO project's twin interferometers were completed in 1999. It is easily distinguishable from the air and is marked as a visual waypoint on aeronautical charts. [16]

A portion of the original linear accelerator is now part of the Linac Coherent Light Source.

SLC pit and detector SLAC pit and detector.jpg
SLC pit and detector

Stanford Linear Collider

The Stanford Linear Collider was a linear accelerator that collided electrons and positrons at SLAC. [17] The center of mass energy was about 90 GeV, equal to the mass of the Z boson, which the accelerator was designed to study. Grad student Barrett D. Milliken discovered the first Z event on 12 April 1989 while poring over the previous day's computer data from the Mark II detector. [18] The bulk of the data was collected by the SLAC Large Detector, which came online in 1991. Although largely overshadowed by the Large Electron–Positron Collider at CERN, which began running in 1989, the highly polarized electron beam at SLC (close to 80% [19] ) made certain unique measurements possible, such as parity violation in Z Boson-b quark coupling. [20]

Presently no beam enters the south and north arcs in the machine, which leads to the Final Focus, therefore this section is mothballed to run beam into the PEP2 section from the beam switchyard.

Inside view of the SLD SLAC detector.jpg
Inside view of the SLD

SLAC Large Detector

The SLAC Large Detector (SLD) was the main detector for the Stanford Linear Collider. It was designed primarily to detect Z bosons produced by the accelerator's electron-positron collisions. Built in 1991, the SLD operated from 1992 to 1998. [21]

PEP

PEP (Positron-Electron Project) began operation in 1980, with center-of-mass energies up to 29 GeV. At its apex, PEP had five large particle detectors in operation, as well as a sixth smaller detector. About 300 researchers made used of PEP. PEP stopped operating in 1990, and PEP-II began construction in 1994. [22]

PEP-II

From 1999 to 2008, the main purpose of the linear accelerator was to inject electrons and positrons into the PEP-II accelerator, an electron-positron collider with a pair of storage rings 2.2 km (1.4 mi) in circumference. PEP-II was host to the BaBar experiment, one of the so-called B-Factory experiments studying charge-parity symmetry.

Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource

The Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL) is a synchrotron light user facility located on the SLAC campus. Originally built for particle physics, it was used in experiments where the J/ψ meson was discovered. It is now used exclusively for materials science and biology experiments which take advantage of the high-intensity synchrotron radiation emitted by the stored electron beam to study the structure of molecules. In the early 1990s, an independent electron injector was built for this storage ring, allowing it to operate independently of the main linear accelerator.

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope GLAST on the payload attach fitting.jpg
Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

SLAC plays a primary role in the mission and operation of the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, launched in August 2008. The principal scientific objectives of this mission are:

KIPAC

The Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology (KIPAC) is partially housed on the grounds of SLAC, in addition to its presence on the main Stanford campus.

PULSE

The Stanford PULSE Institute (PULSE) is a Stanford Independent Laboratory located in the Central Laboratory at SLAC. PULSE was created by Stanford in 2005 to help Stanford faculty and SLAC scientists develop ultrafast x-ray research at LCLS. PULSE research publications can be viewed here.

LCLS

The Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) is a free electron laser facility located at SLAC. The LCLS is partially a reconstruction of the last 1/3 of the original linear accelerator at SLAC, and can deliver extremely intense x-ray radiation for research in a number of areas. It achieved first lasing in April 2009. [23]

Aerial photo of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, showing the 3.2 kilometer (2-mile) building housing the accelerator beamline, which passes under Interstate 280. The detector complex is visible to the east, on the right side. Stanford-linear-accelerator-usgs-ortho-kaminski-5900.jpg
Aerial photo of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, showing the 3.2 kilometer (2-mile) building housing the accelerator beamline, which passes under Interstate 280. The detector complex is visible to the east, on the right side.

The laser produces hard X-rays, 109 times the relative brightness of traditional synchrotron sources and is the most powerful x-ray source in the world. LCLS enables a variety of new experiments and provides enhancements for existing experimental methods. Often, x-rays are used to take "snapshots" of objects at the atomic level before obliterating samples. The laser's wavelength, ranging from 6.2 to 0.13 nm (200 to 9500 electron volts (eV)) [24] [25] is similar to the width of an atom, providing extremely detailed information that was previously unattainable. [26] Additionally, the laser is capable of capturing images with a "shutter speed" measured in femtoseconds, or million-billionths of a second, necessary because the intensity of the beam is often high enough so that the sample explodes on the femtosecond timescale. [27] [24]

LCLS-II

The LCLS-II project is to provide a major upgrade to LCLS by adding two new X-ray laser beams. The new system will utilize the 500 m (1,600 ft) of existing tunnel to add a new superconducting accelerator at 4 GeV and two new sets of undulators that will increase the available energy range of LCLS. The advancement from the discoveries using this new capabilities may include new drugs, next-generation computers, and new materials. [28]

FACET

In 2012, the first two-thirds (~2 km) of the original SLAC LINAC were recommissioned for a new user facility, the Facility for Advanced Accelerator Experimental Tests (FACET). This facility was capable of delivering 20 GeV, 3 nC electron (and positron) beams with short bunch lengths and small spot sizes, ideal for beam-driven plasma acceleration studies. [29] The facility ended operations in 2016 for the constructions of LCLS-II which will occupy the first third of the SLAC LINAC. The FACET-II project will re-establish electron and positron beams in the middle third of the LINAC for the continuation of beam-driven plasma acceleration studies in 2019.

NLCTA

The Next Linear Collider Test Accelerator (NLCTA) is a 60-120 MeV high-brightness electron beam linear accelerator used for experiments on advanced beam manipulation and acceleration techniques. It is located at SLAC's end station B. A list of relevant research publications can be viewed here Archived 15 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine .

Theoretical Physics

SLAC also performs theoretical research in elementary particle physics, including in areas of quantum field theory, collider physics, astroparticle physics, and particle phenomenology.

Other discoveries

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Particle physics</span> Study of subatomic particles and forces

Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The field also studies combinations of elementary particles up to the scale of protons and neutrons, while the study of combination of protons and neutrons is called nuclear physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DESY</span> German national research center

DESY, short for Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, is a national research centre for fundamental science located in Hamburg and Zeuthen near Berlin in Germany. It operates particle accelerators used to investigate the structure, dynamics and function of matter, and conducts a broad spectrum of interdisciplinary scientific research in four main areas: particle and high energy physics; photon science; astroparticle physics; and the development, construction and operation of particle accelerators. Its name refers to its first project, an electron synchrotron. DESY is publicly financed by the Federal Republic of Germany and the Federal States of Hamburg and Brandenburg and is a member of the Helmholtz Association.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Linear particle accelerator</span> Type of particle accelerator

A linear particle accelerator is a type of particle accelerator that accelerates charged subatomic particles or ions to a high speed by subjecting them to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beamline. The principles for such machines were proposed by Gustav Ising in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by Rolf Widerøe in 1928 at the RWTH Aachen University. Linacs have many applications: they generate X-rays and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in radiation therapy, serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles for particle physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large Electron–Positron Collider</span> Particle accelerator at CERN, Switzerland

The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) was one of the largest particle accelerators ever constructed. It was built at CERN, a multi-national centre for research in nuclear and particle physics near Geneva, Switzerland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Synchrotron</span> Type of cyclic particle accelerator

A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic particle accelerator, descended from the cyclotron, in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path. The magnetic field which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, being synchronized to the increasing kinetic energy of the particles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compact Linear Collider</span> Concept for a linear particle accelerator

The Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) is a concept for a future linear particle accelerator that aims to explore the next energy frontier. CLIC would collide electrons with positrons and is currently the only mature option for a multi-TeV linear collider. The accelerator would be between 11 and 50 km long, more than ten times longer than the existing Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC) in California, US. CLIC is proposed to be built at CERN, across the border between France and Switzerland near Geneva, with first beams starting by the time the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has finished operations around 2035.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Linear Collider</span> Proposed linear accelerator for subatomic particles

The International Linear Collider (ILC) is a proposed linear particle accelerator. It is planned to have a collision energy of 500 GeV initially, with the possibility for a later upgrade to 1000 GeV (1 TeV). Although early proposed locations for the ILC were Japan, Europe (CERN) and the USA (Fermilab), the Kitakami highland in the Iwate prefecture of northern Japan has been the focus of ILC design efforts since 2013. The Japanese government is willing to contribute half of the costs, according to the coordinator of study for detectors at the ILC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">KEK</span> Japanese high-energy physics organization

The High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, known as KEK, is a Japanese organization whose purpose is to operate the largest particle physics laboratory in Japan, situated in Tsukuba, Ibaraki prefecture. It was established in 1997. The term "KEK" is also used to refer to the laboratory itself, which employs approximately 695 employees. KEK's main function is to provide the particle accelerators and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics, material science, structural biology, radiation science, computing science, nuclear transmutation and so on. Numerous experiments have been constructed at KEK by the internal and international collaborations that have made use of them. Makoto Kobayashi, emeritus professor at KEK, is known globally for his work on CP-violation, and was awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics</span>

The Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (BINP) is one of the major centres of advanced study of nuclear physics in Russia. It is located in the Siberian town Akademgorodok, on Academician Lavrentiev Avenue. The institute was founded by Gersh Budker in 1959. Following his death in 1977, the institute was renamed in honour of Budker.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource</span> Research center at Stanford University

The Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, a division of SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, is operated by Stanford University for the Department of Energy. SSRL is a National User Facility which provides synchrotron radiation, a name given to electromagnetic radiation in the x-ray, ultraviolet, visible and infrared realms produced by electrons circulating in a storage ring at nearly the speed of light. The extremely bright light that is produced can be used to investigate various forms of matter ranging from objects of atomic and molecular size to man-made materials with unusual properties. The obtained information and knowledge is of great value to society, with impact in areas such as the environment, future technologies, health, biology, basic research, and education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electron scattering</span> Deviation of electrons from their original trajectories

Electron scattering occurs when electrons are displaced from their original trajectory. This is due to the electrostatic forces within matter interaction or, if an external magnetic field is present, the electron may be deflected by the Lorentz force. This scattering typically happens with solids such as metals, semiconductors and insulators; and is a limiting factor in integrated circuits and transistors.

The Australian Synchrotron is a 3 GeV national synchrotron radiation facility located in Clayton, in the south-eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria. The facility opened in 2007, and is operated by the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation.

Joachim Stöhr is a physicist and professor emeritus of the Photon Science Department of Stanford University. His research has focused on the development of X-ray and synchrotron radiation techniques and their applications in different scientific fields with emphasis on surface science and magnetism. During his career he also held several scientific leadership positions, such as the director of the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL) and he was the founding director of the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), the world's first x-ray free electron laser.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Institute of High Energy Physics</span> Chinese Government Agency

The Institute of High Energy Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IHEP) is the largest and most comprehensive fundamental research center of high-energy physics in China. It is located in Shijingshan District, Beijing and administered by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The major research fields of IHEP are particle physics, astrophysics and astroparticle physics, accelerator physics and technologies, radiation technologies, and their applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Particle accelerator</span> Research apparatus for particle physics

A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to very high speeds and energies to contain them in well-defined beams. Small accelerators are used for fundamental research in particle physics. Accelerators are also used as synchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, ion implanters for the manufacture of semiconductors, and accelerator mass spectrometers for measurements of rare isotopes such as radiocarbon.

An energy recovery linac (ERL) is a type of linear particle accelerator that provides a beam of electrons used to produce x-rays by synchrotron radiation. First proposed in 1965 the idea gained interest since the early 2000s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati</span>

The INFN National Laboratory of Frascati (LNF) was founded in 1954 with the objective of furthering particle physics research, and more specifically to host the 1.1 GeV electrosynchrotron, the first accelerator ever built in Italy. The Laboratory later developed the first ever electron-positron collider: from the first prototype AdA, which demonstrated the feasibility, to the ring ADONE and later on to DAΦNE, still operative today (2024). LNF was also the proposed site of the cancelled particle accelerator SuperB.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Claudio Pellegrini</span>

Claudio Pellegrini is an Italian/American physics and emeritus professor at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), known for his pioneering work on X-ray free electron lasers and collective effects in relativistic particle beams.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LEP Pre-Injector</span>

The LEP Pre-Injector (LPI) was the initial source that provided electrons and positrons to CERN's accelerator complex for the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) from 1989 until 2000.

References

  1. ↑ Labs at a glance - SLAC http://science.energy.gov/laboratories/slac-national-accelerator-laboratory/ Archived 9 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  2. 1 2 "SLAC renamed to SLAC Natl. Accelerator Laboratory". The Stanford Daily . 16 October 2008. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2008.
  3. ↑ "Stanford Linear Accelerator Center renamed SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory" (Press release). SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. 15 October 2008. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  4. ↑ Nobel Prize in Physics 1976 Archived 7 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine . Half prize awarded to Burton Richter.
  5. ↑ Nobel Prize in Physics 1990 Archived 26 November 2005 at the Wayback Machine Award split between Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, and Richard E. Taylor.
  6. ↑ Nobel Prize in Physics 1995 Archived 2 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine Half prize awarded to Martin L. Perl.
  7. ↑ "Milestones:Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, 1962". IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
  8. ↑ "Archives and History Office: Early Chronology and Documents". Archived from the original on 24 November 2005. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  9. ↑ "2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry". SLAC Virtual Visitor Center. Stanford University. n.d. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
  10. ↑ "SLAC Today". Archived from the original on 30 July 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  11. ↑ "23, 2009 - SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory to Receive $68.3 Million in Recovery Act Funding". Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
  12. ↑ Hannah Knowles; Berber Jin (29 May 2019). "Chinese access to research questioned: Disagreements ensue over inclusion and national security". Vol. 255, no. 66. The Stanford Daily.
  13. ↑ Dorsey, Dustin (12 April 2024). "World's largest digital camera now complete at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in Bay Area". KGO-TV . ABC Owned Television Stations . Retrieved 16 June 2024.
  14. ↑ Saracevic, Alan T. "Silicon Valley: It's where brains meet bucks. Archived 22 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine " San Francisco Chronicle 23 October 2005. p J2. Accessed 2005-10-24.
  15. ↑ Neal, R. B. (1968). "Chap. 5" (PDF). The Stanford Two-Mile Accelerator. New York, New York: W.A. Benjamin, Inc. p. 59. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
  16. ↑ "VPSLA waypoint | OpenNav". Archived from the original on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  17. ↑ Loew, G. A. (1984). "The SLAC Linear Collider and a few ideas on Future Linear Colliders" (PDF). Proceedings of the 1984 Linear Accelerator Conference. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 June 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
  18. ↑ Rees, J. R. (1989). "The Stanford Linear Collider". Scientific American. 261 (4): 36–43. Bibcode:1989SciAm.261d..58R. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1089-58. See also a colleague's logbook at http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000294 Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine .
  19. ↑ Ken Baird, Measurements of ALR and Alepton from SLD http://hepweb.rl.ac.uk/ichep98/talks_1/talk101.pdf Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ↑ Wright, Thomas R. (2002). "Parity Violation in Decays of Z Bosons into Heavy Quarks at SLD" (PDF). doi:10.2172/801825. OSTI   801825. S2CID   116959532. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2020.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ↑ "The Stanford Linear Accelerator Center". Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
  22. ↑ "The Stanford Linear Accelerator Center". Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  23. ↑ "SLAC Linac Coherent Light Source". Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  24. 1 2 "SOFT X-RAY MATERIALS SCIENCE (SXR)". Archived from the original on 17 September 2015. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
  25. ↑ "LCLS status page". Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  26. ↑ Bostedt, C.; et al. (2013). "Ultra-fast and ultra-intense x-ray sciences: First results from the Linac Coherent Light Source free-electron laser". Journal of Physics B. 46 (16): 164003. Bibcode:2013JPhB...46p4003B. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/46/16/164003. S2CID   121297567.
  27. ↑ Ehrenberg, Rachel. "X-raying life's microscopic machinery / New laser technique promises to make the subcellular visible". ScienceNews.org. Science News. Archived from the original on 13 December 2011.
  28. ↑ "LCLS-II Upgrade to Enable Pioneering Research in Many Fields". Cryogenic Society of America. 8 July 2015. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  29. ↑ "FACET: SLAC's new user facility" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 November 2014. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
  30. ↑ Stanford's SLAC Paleoparadoxia Archived 29 August 2005 at the Wayback Machine much thanks to Adele Panofsky, Dr. Panofsky's wife, for her reassembly of the bones of the Paleoparadoxia uncovered at SLAC.
  31. ↑ Bergmann, Uwe. "X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging of the Archimedes Palimpsest: A Technical Summary" (PDF). SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.