National Center for Computational Sciences

Last updated

The National Center for Computational Sciences (NCCS) is a United States Department of Energy (DOE) Leadership Computing Facility that houses the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility (OLCF), a DOE Office of Science User Facility charged with helping researchers solve challenging scientific problems of global interest with a combination of leading high-performance computing (HPC) resources and international expertise in scientific computing. [1]

Contents

The NCCS provides resources for calculation and simulation in fields including astrophysics, materials science, and climate research to users from government, academia, and industry who have many of the largest computing problems in science. [2]

The OLCF’s flagship supercomputer, the IBM AC922 Summit, is supported by advanced data management and analysis tools. The center hosted the Cray XK7 Titan system, one of the most powerful scientific tools of its time, from 2012 through its retirement in August 2019. The same year, construction began for Frontier, which is slated to debut as the OLCF’s first exascale system in 2021. [3]

History

On December 9, 1991, Congress signed the High-Performance Computing Act (HPCA) of 1991, created by Senator Al Gore. HPCA proposed a national information infrastructure to build communications networks and databases and also called for proposals to build new high-performance computing facilities to serve science. [4]

On May 24, 1992, ORNL was awarded a high-performance computing research center called the Center for Computational Sciences, or CCS, as part of HPCA. [5] ORNL also received a 66-processor, serial #1 Intel Paragon XP/S 5 for code development the same year. The system had a peak performance of 5 gigaflops (5 billion floating-point operations per second).

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) joined with three other national laboratories and seven universities to submit the Partnership in Computational Science (PICS) proposal to the US Department of Energy as part of the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative. [6] [7]

With the High-End Computing Revitalization Act of 2004, CCS was tasked with carrying out the Leadership Computing Facility (LCF) Project at ORNL with the goal of developing and installing a petaflops-speed supercomputer by the end of 2008. [8] The center officially changed its name from the Center for Computational Sciences to NCCS the same year.

On December 9, 2019, Georgia Tourassi–who previously served as the director of ORNL's Health Data Sciences Institute and as group leader for ORNL’s Biomedical Sciences, Engineering, and Computing Group–was appointed to director of the NCCS, succeeding James Hack. [9]

Previous Systems [10]

Intel Paragons

The creation of the CCS in 1992 ushered in a series of Intel Paragon computers, including:

Eagle (2000–2005) [15]

Eagle was a 184-node IBM RS/6000 SP operated by the Computer Science and Mathematics Division of ORNL. It had 176 Winterhawk-II “thin” nodes, each with four 375 MHz Power3-II processors and 2GB of memory. Eagle also had eight Winterhawk-II “wide” nodes - each with two 375 MHz Power3-II processors and 2 GB of memory—for use as filesystem servers and other infrastructure tasks. Eagle’s estimated computational power was greater than 1 teraflop in the compute partition.

Falcon (2000) [16]

Falcon was a 64-node Compaq AlphaServer SC operated by the CCS and acquired as part of an early-evaluation project. It had four 667 MHz Alpha EV67 processors with 2 GB of memory per node and 2 TB of Fiber Channel disk attached, resulting in an estimated computational power of 342 gigaflops.

Cheetah [17] (2001–2008) [18]

Cheetah was a 4.5 TF IBM pSeries System operated by the CCS. The compute partition of Cheetah included 27 p690 nodes, each with thirty-two 1.3 GHz Power4 processors. The login and I/O partitions together included 8 p655 nodes, each with four 1.7 GHz Power4 processors. All nodes were connected via IBM’s Federation interconnect.

The Power4 memory hierarchy consisted of three levels of cache. The first and second levels were on the Power4 chip (two processors to a chip). Level-1 instruction cache was 128 KB (64 KB per processor) and the data cache was 64 KB (32 KB per processor.) The level-2 cache was 1.5 MB shared between the two processors. The level 3 cache was 32 MB and was off-chip. There were 16 chips per node, or 32 processors.

Most of Cheetah’s compute nodes had 32 GB of memory. Five had 64 GB of memory and two had 128 GB of memory. Some of the nodes in Cheetah had approximately 160 GB of local disk space that could be used as temporary scratch space.

In June 2002, Cheetah was ranked the eighth-fastest computer in the world, according to TOP500, the semi-annual list of the world's top supercomputers. [19]

Ram (2003–2007) [20]

Ram was an SGI Altix supercomputer provided as a support system for the NCCS.

Ram was installed in 2003 and was used as a pre- and post-processing support system for allocated NCCS projects until 2007.

Ram had 256 Intel Itanium2 processors running at 1.5 GHz, each with 6 MB of L3 cache, 256K of L2 cache, and 32K of L1 cache. Ram had 8 GB of memory per processor for a total of 2 TB of shared memory. By contrast, the first supercomputer at ORNL, the Cray XMP installed in 1985, had one-millionth the memory of the SGI Altix.

Phoenix (OLCF-1) (2003–2008) [21]

Phoenix was a Cray X1E provided as a primary system in NCCS.

The original X1 was installed in 2003 and went through several upgrades, arriving at its final configuration in 2005. From October 2005 until 2008, it provided almost 17 million processor-hours. The system supported more than 40 large projects in research areas including climate, combustion, high energy physics, fusion, chemistry, computer science, materials science, and astrophysics.

At its final configuration, Phoenix had 1,024 multistreaming vector processors (MSPs). Each MSP had 2 MB of cache and a peak computation rate of 18 gigaflops. Four MSPs formed a node with 8 GB of shared memory. Memory bandwidth was very high, roughly half the cache bandwidth. The interconnect functioned as an extension of the memory system, offering each node direct access to memory on other nodes at high bandwidth and low latency.

Jaguar (OLCF-2) (2005–2012) [22]

Jaguar began as a 25-teraflop Cray XT3 in 2005. Later, it was upgraded to an XT4 containing 7,832 compute nodes, each containing a quad-core AMD Opteron 1354 processor running at 2.1 GHz, 8 GB of DDR2-800 memory (some nodes used DDR2-667 memory), and a SeaStar2 router. The resulting partition contained 31,328 processing cores, more than 62 TB of memory, more than 600 TB of disk space, and a peak performance of 263 teraflops (263 trillion floating point operations per second).

In 2008, Jaguar was upgraded to a Cray XT5 and became the first system to run a scientific application at a sustained petaflop. By the time of its ultimate transformation into Titan in 2012, [23] Jaguar contained nearly 300,000 processing cores and had a theoretical performance peak of 3.3 petaflops. Jaguar had 224,256 x86-based AMD Opteron processor cores and operated with a version of Linux called the Cray Linux Environment.

From November 2009 until November 2010, Jaguar was the world's most powerful computer.

Hawk (2006–2008) [24]

Hawk was a 64-node Linux cluster dedicated to high-end visualization.

Hawk was installed in 2006 and was used as the Center’s primary visualization cluster until May 2008 when it was replaced by a 512-core system named Lens. [25]

Each node contained two single-core Opteron processors and 2 GB of memory. The cluster was connected by a Quadrics Elan3 network, providing high-bandwidth and low-latency communication. The cluster was populated with two flavors of NVIDIA graphics cards connected with AGP8x: 5900 and QuadroFX 3000G. Nodes with 3000G cards were directly connected to the EVEREST PowerWall and were reserved for PowerWall use.

Ewok (2006–2011) [26]

Ewok was an Intel-based InfiniBand cluster running Linux. The system was provided as an end-to-end resource for center users. It was used for workflow automation for jobs running from the Jaguar supercomputer and for advanced data analysis. The system contained 81 nodes. Each node contained two 3.4 GHz Pentium IV processors, a 3.4 GHz Intel Xeon central processing unit (CPU), and 6 GB of memory. An additional node contained 4 dual-core AMD processors and 64 GB of memory. The system was configured with a 13 TB Lustre file system for scratch space.

Eugene (2008–2011) [27]

Eugene was a 27-teraflop IBM Blue Gene/P System operated by NCCS. It provided approximately 45 million processor-hours yearly for ORNL staff and for the promotion of research collaborations between ORNL and its core university partner members.

The system consisted of 2,048 850Mhz IBM quad-core 450d PowerPC processors and 2 GB of memory per each node. Eugene had 64 I/O nodes; each submitted job was required to use at least one I/O node. This means that each job consumed a minimum of 32 nodes per execution.

Eugene was officially decommissioned in October 2011. However, on December 13 of the same year, a portion of Eugene’s hardware was donated to Argonne Leadership Computing Facility (ALCF) at Argonne National Laboratory. [28]

Eos (2013–2019)

Eos was a 736-node Cray XC30 cluster with a total of 47.104 TB of memory. Its processor was the Intel Xeon E5-2670. It featured 16 I/O service nodes and 2 external login nodes. Its compute nodes were organized in blades. Each blade contained 4 nodes. Every node had 2 sockets with 8 physical cores each. Intel’s HyperThreading (HT) Technology allowed each physical core to work as 2 logical cores so each node could function as if it had 32 cores. In total, the Eos compute partition contained 11,776 traditional processor cores (23,552 logical cores with HT Technology enabled). [29]

Eos provided a space for tool and application porting, small scale jobs to prepare capability runs on Titan, as well as software generation, verification, and optimization. [30]

Titan (OLCF-3) (2012–2019)

Titan was a hybrid-architecture Cray XK7 system with a theoretical peak performance exceeding 27,000 trillion calculations per second (27 petaflops). It contained both advanced 16-core AMD Opteron CPUs and NVIDIA Kepler graphics processing units (GPUs). This combination allowed Titan to achieve 10 times the speed and 5 times the energy efficiency of its predecessor, the Jaguar supercomputer, while using only modestly more energy and occupying the same physical footprint. [31]

Titan featured 18,688 compute nodes, a total system memory of 710 TB, and Cray’s high-performance Gemini network. Its 299,008 CPU cores guided simulations and the accompanying GPUs handled hundreds of calculations simultaneously. The system provided decreased time to solution, increased complexity of models, and greater realism in simulations. [32] In November 2012, Titan received the Number 1 position on the TOP500 supercomputer list. [33]

After 7 years of service, Titan was decommissioned in August 2019 to make room for the Frontier supercomputer. [34]

Current Systems

Spider

The OLCF’s center-wide Lustre file system, called Spider, is the operational work file system for most OLCF computational resources. As an extremely high-performance system, Spider has over 20,000 clients, providing 32 PB of disk space, and it can move data at more than 1 TB/s. Spider comprises two filesystems, Atlas1 and Atlas2, in order to provide high availability and load balance across multiple metadata servers for increased performance. [35]

HPSS

HPSS, ORNL’s archival mass-storage resource, consists of tape and disk storage components, Linux servers, and High Performance Storage System (HPSS) software. Tape storage is provided by StorageTek SL8500 robotic tape libraries, each of which can hold up to 10,000 cartridges. [36] Each library has 24 T10K-A drives, 60 T10K-B drives, 36 T10K-C drives, and 72 T10K-D drives. [37]

EVEREST

EVEREST (Exploratory Visualization Environment for Research in Science and Technology) is a large-scale venue for data exploration and analysis. EVEREST measures 30 feet long by 8 feet tall, and its main feature is a 27-projector PowerWall with an aggregate pixel count of 35 million pixels. The projectors are arranged in a 9×3 array, each providing 3,500 lumens for a very bright display.

Displaying 11,520 by 3,072 pixels, the wall offers a tremendous amount of visual detail. The wall is integrated with the rest of the computing center, creating a high-bandwidth data path between large-scale high-performance computing and large-scale data visualization.

EVEREST is controlled by a 14-node cluster. Each node contains four dual-core AMD Opteron processors. These 14 nodes have NVIDIA QuadroFX 3000G graphics cards connected to the projectors, providing a very-high-throughput visualization capability. The visualization lab acts as an experimental facility for development of future visualization capabilities. It houses a 12-panel tiled LCD display, test cluster nodes, interaction devices, and video equipment.

Rhea

Rhea is a 521-node, commodity-type Linux cluster. Rhea provides a conduit for large-scale scientific discovery via pre- and post-processing of simulation data generated on the Titan supercomputer. Each of Rhea’s first 512 nodes contain two 8-core 2.0 GHz Intel Xeon processors with Intel’s HT Technology and 128 GB of main memory. Rhea also has nine large memory GPU nodes. These nodes each have 1 TB of main memory and two NVIDIA K80 GPUs with two 14-core 2.30 GHz Intel Xeon processors with HT Technology. Rhea is connected to the OLCF’s high performance Lustre filesystem, Atlas. [38]

Wombat

Wombat is a single-rack cluster from HPE based on the 64-bit ARM architecture instead of traditional x86-based architecture. This system is available to support computer science research projects aimed at exploring the ARM architecture.

The Wombat cluster has 16 compute nodes, four of which have two AMD GPU accelerators attached (eight GPUs total in the system). Each compute node has two 28-core Cavium ThunderX2 processors, 256 GB RAM (16 DDR4 DIMMs) and a 480 GB SSD for node-local storage. Nodes are connected with EDR InfiniBand (~100 Gbit/s). [39]

Summit (OLCF-4)

The OLCF's IBM AC922 Summit supercomputer. Summit (supercomputer).jpg
The OLCF's IBM AC922 Summit supercomputer.

The IBM AC922 Summit , or OLCF-4, is ORNL’s 200-petaflop flagship supercomputer. Summit was originally launched in June 2018, and as of the November 2019 TOP500 list, is the fastest computer in the world with a High Performance Linpack (HPL) performance of 148.6 petaflops. [40] Summit is also the first computer to reach exascale performance, achieving a peak throughput of 1.88 exaops through a mixture of single- and half-precision floating point operations. [41]

Like its predecessor Titan, Summit makes use of a hybrid architecture that integrates its 9,216 Power9 CPUs and 27,648 NVIDIA Volta V100 GPUs using NVIDIA’s NVLink. [42] Summit features 4,608 nodes (nearly a quarter of Titan’s 18,688 nodes), each with 512 GB of Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DDR4) and 96 GB of High Bandwidth Memory (HBM2) per node, with a total storage capacity of 250 petabytes. [43]

Frontier (OLCF-5)

Scheduled for delivery in 2021 with user access becoming available the following year, Frontier will be ORNL’s first sustainable exascale system, meaning it will be capable of performing one quintillion—one billion billion—operations per second. The system will be composed of more than 100 Cray Shasta cabinets with an anticipated peak performance around 1.5 exaflops. [44]

Research areas

Related Research Articles

Supercomputer Extremely powerful computer for its era

A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance as compared to a general-purpose computer. The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS). Since 2017, there are supercomputers which can perform over 1017 FLOPS (a hundred quadrillion FLOPS, 100 petaFLOPS or 100 PFLOPS). Since November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in the United States, the European Union, Taiwan, Japan, and China to build faster, more powerful and technologically superior exascale supercomputers.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory United States DOE national laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, United States

Oak Ridge National Laboratory is an American multiprogram science and technology national laboratory sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and administered, managed, and operated by UT–Battelle as a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) under a contract with the DOE. Established in 1942, ORNL is the largest science and energy national laboratory in the Department of Energy system and third largest by annual budget. ORNL is located in the Roane County section of the city of Oak Ridge, Tennessee. ORNL's scientific programs focus on materials, neutron science, energy, high-performance computing, systems biology and national security.

FLOPS Measure of computer performance

In computing, floating point operations per second is a measure of computer performance, useful in fields of scientific computations that require floating-point calculations. For such cases it is a more accurate measure than measuring instructions per second.

IBM Blue Gene Series of supercomputers by IBM

Blue Gene is an IBM project aimed at designing supercomputers that can reach operating speeds in the petaFLOPS (PFLOPS) range, with low power consumption.

Cray Inc., a subsidiary of Hewlett Packard Enterprise, is an American supercomputer manufacturer headquartered in Seattle, Washington. It also manufactures systems for data storage and analytics. Several Cray supercomputer systems are listed in the TOP500, which ranks the most powerful supercomputers in the world.

MareNostrum

MareNostrum is the main supercomputer in the Barcelona Supercomputing Center. It is the most powerful supercomputer in Spain, one of thirteen supercomputers in the Spanish Supercomputing Network and one of the seven supercomputers of the European infrastructure PRACE.

EPCC, formerly the Edinburgh Parallel Computing Centre, is a supercomputing centre based at the University of Edinburgh. Since its foundation in 1990, its stated mission has been to accelerate the effective exploitation of novel computing throughout industry, academia and commerce.

National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center Supercomputer facility operated by the US Department of Energy in Berkeley, California

The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, or NERSC, is a high performance computing (supercomputer) user facility operated by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for the United States Department of Energy Office of Science. As the mission computing center for the Office of Science, NERSC houses high performance computing and data systems used by 7,000 scientists at national laboratories and universities around the country. NERSC's newest and largest supercomputer is Cori, which was ranked 5th on the TOP500 list of world's fastest supercomputers in November 2016. NERSC is located on the main Berkeley Lab campus in Berkeley, California.

The Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility (OLCF), formerly the National Leadership Computing Facility, is a designated user facility operated by Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the Department of Energy. It contains several supercomputers, the largest of which is an IBM OLCF-4 named Summit, which was ranked 1st on the TOP500 list of world's fastest supercomputers as of June 2018. It is located in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

TOP500 Ranking of the 500 most powerful supercomputers

The TOP500 project ranks and details the 500 most powerful non-distributed computer systems in the world. The project was started in 1993 and publishes an updated list of the supercomputers twice a year. The first of these updates always coincides with the International Supercomputing Conference in June, and the second is presented at the ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference in November. The project aims to provide a reliable basis for tracking and detecting trends in high-performance computing and bases rankings on HPL, a portable implementation of the high-performance LINPACK benchmark written in Fortran for distributed-memory computers.

Jaguar (supercomputer)

Jaguar or OLCF-2 was a petascale supercomputer built by Cray at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The massively parallel Jaguar had a peak performance of just over 1,750 teraFLOPS. It had 224,256 x86-based AMD Opteron processor cores, and operated with a version of Linux called the Cray Linux Environment. Jaguar was a Cray XT5 system, a development from the Cray XT4 supercomputer.

The National Institute for Computational Sciences (NICS) is funded by the National Science Foundation and managed by the University of Tennessee. NICS was home to Kraken, the most powerful computer in the world managed by academia. The NICS petascale scientific computing environment is housed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), home to the world's most powerful computing complex. The mission of NICS, a member of the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment, is to enable the scientific discoveries of researchers nationwide by providing leading-edge computational resources, together with support for their effective use, and leveraging extensive partnership opportunities.

Exascale computing refers to computing systems capable of calculating at least 1018 floating point operations per second (1 exaFLOPS). The terminology generally refers to the performance of supercomputer systems and although no single machine has reached this goal as of January 2021, there are systems being designed to reach this milestone. In April 2020, the distributed computing Folding@home network attained one exaFLOPS of computing performance.

Kraken was a Cray XT5 supercomputer that entered into full production mode on February 2, 2009. Kraken was operated by the University of Tennessee and was the most powerful computer in the world managed by academia at the time. It was housed in the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing facility at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Kraken was decommissioned on April 30, 2014.

Supercomputer architecture

Approaches to supercomputer architecture have taken dramatic turns since the earliest systems were introduced in the 1960s. Early supercomputer architectures pioneered by Seymour Cray relied on compact innovative designs and local parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance. However, in time the demand for increased computational power ushered in the age of massively parallel systems.

Titan (supercomputer) American supercomputer

Titan or OLCF-3 was a supercomputer built by Cray at Oak Ridge National Laboratory for use in a variety of science projects. Titan was an upgrade of Jaguar, a previous supercomputer at Oak Ridge, that uses graphics processing units (GPUs) in addition to conventional central processing units (CPUs). Titan was the first such hybrid to perform over 10 petaFLOPS. The upgrade began in October 2011, commenced stability testing in October 2012 and it became available to researchers in early 2013. The initial cost of the upgrade was US$60 million, funded primarily by the United States Department of Energy.

XK7 is a supercomputing platform, produced by Cray, launched on October 29, 2012. XK7 is the second platform from Cray to use a combination of central processing units ("CPUs") and graphical processing units ("GPUs") for computing; the hybrid architecture requires a different approach to programming to that of CPU-only supercomputers. Laboratories that host XK7 machines host workshops to train researchers in the new programming languages needed for XK7 machines. The platform is used in Titan, the world's second fastest supercomputer in the November 2013 list as ranked by the TOP500 organization. Other customers include the Swiss National Supercomputing Centre which has a 272 node machine and Blue Waters has a machine that has Cray XE6 and XK7 nodes that performs at approximately 1 petaFLOPS (1015 floating-point operations per second).

Cray XC40 Supercomputer manufactured by Cray

The Cray XC40 is a massively parallel multiprocessor supercomputer manufactured by Cray. It consists of Intel Haswell Xeon processors, with optional Nvidia Tesla or Intel Xeon Phi accelerators, connected together by Cray's proprietary "Aries" interconnect, stored in air-cooled or liquid-cooled cabinets. The XC series supercomputers are available with the Cray DataWarp applications I/O accelerator technology.

Summit (supercomputer) Supercomputer developed by IBM

Summit or OLCF-4 is a supercomputer developed by IBM for use at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, capable of 200 petaFLOPS, making it the second fastest supercomputer in the world Its current LINPACK benchmark is clocked at 148.6 petaFLOPS. As of November 2019, the supercomputer is also the 5th most energy efficient in the world with a measured power efficiency of 14.668 gigaFLOPS/watt. Summit was the first supercomputer to reach exaflop speed, achieving 1.88 exaflops during a genomic analysis and is expected to reach 3.3 exaflops using mixed-precision calculations.

Frontier or OLCF-5 is an exascale supercomputer being planned for delivery in 2021 at the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. It will be the United States' first exascale computer with a target computation performance of ~1.5 exaFLOPS. It is being built at a cost of US$600 million.

References

  1. ↑ "Overview". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  2. ↑ "Overview". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  3. ↑ "Frontier". www.olcf.ornl.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  4. ↑ "Overview". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  5. ↑ "May 2007". web.ornl.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  6. ↑ Huray, Paul G. (1999-02-24). "Partnership in Computational Science". UNT Digital Library. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  7. ↑ "May 2007". web.ornl.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  8. ↑ Biggert, Judy (2004-11-30). "H.R.4516 - 108th Congress (2003-2004): Department of Energy High-End Computing Revitalization Act of 2004". www.congress.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  9. ↑ "Tourassi appointed director of ORNL National Center for Computational Sciences". WYSH AM 1380. 2019-12-23. Retrieved 2020-06-22.
  10. ↑ "National Center for Computational Sciences » Decommissioned Systems". 2012-09-13. Archived from the original on 2012-09-13. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  11. ↑ "XP/S 5 Hardware Description". 1997-01-21. Archived from the original on 1997-01-21. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  12. ↑ "Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility". www.tiki-toki.com. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  13. ↑ "Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility". www.tiki-toki.com. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  14. ↑ "Hardware Description of Intel Paragon XP/S 150". Archived from the original on 1999-04-28.
  15. ↑ "CCS: IBM SP (Eagle)". 2006-06-22. Archived from the original on 2006-06-22. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  16. ↑ "ORNL CCS Resources". 2000-12-10. Archived from the original on 2000-12-10. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  17. ↑ "CCS: IBM pSeries Cluster (Cheetah)". 2005-03-04. Archived from the original on 2005-03-04. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  18. ↑ "December 2007". web.ornl.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  19. ↑ "The Oak Ridger Online -- Feature: Business -- 'Cheetah' eighth fastest computer 06/21/02". www.csm.ornl.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  20. ↑ "National Center for Computational Sciences » Decommissioned Systems". 2012-09-13. Archived from the original on 2012-09-13. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  21. ↑ "National Center for Computational Sciences » Decommissioned Systems". 2012-09-13. Archived from the original on 2012-09-13. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  22. ↑ "National Center for Computational Sciences » Decommissioned Systems". 2012-09-13. Archived from the original on 2012-09-13. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  23. ↑ Ago, • 7 Years. "Jaguar Gone But Not Forgotten". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  24. ↑ "National Center for Computational Sciences » Decommissioned Systems". 2012-09-13. Archived from the original on 2012-09-13. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  25. ↑ "Lens | National Center for Computational Sciences". 2009-12-21. Archived from the original on 2009-12-21. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  26. ↑ "National Center for Computational Sciences » Decommissioned Systems". 2012-09-13. Archived from the original on 2012-09-13. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  27. ↑ "Decommissioned Systems". Archived from the original on 2012-09-13.
  28. ↑ Ago, • 8 Years. "Oak Ridge Computing Facility Donates Eugene System to Argonne". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  29. ↑ "Eos". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  30. ↑ "Eos". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  31. ↑ "Titan". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  32. ↑ "Titan". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  33. ↑ "Titan: Oak Ridge National Laboratory | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites". www.top500.org. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  34. ↑ "Farewell, Titan". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  35. ↑ "Spider". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  36. ↑ "HPSS". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  37. ↑ "HPSS". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  38. ↑ "Rhea". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  39. ↑ "Wombat". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  40. ↑ "November 2019 | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites". www.top500.org. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  41. ↑ "Genomics Code Exceeds Exaops on Summit Supercomputer". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  42. ↑ Summit and Sierra Supercomputers: An Inside Look at the U.S. Department of Energy’s New Pre-Exascale Systems (PDF). Teratec (Report).
  43. ↑ "Summit: By the Numbers" (PDF).
  44. ↑ "Frontier". www.olcf.ornl.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  45. ↑ "Biology". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  46. ↑ "Chemistry". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  47. ↑ "Computer Science". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  48. ↑ "Earth Science". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  49. ↑ "Engineering". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  50. ↑ "Speeding Toward the Future of Fusion". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  51. ↑ "Materials Science". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  52. ↑ "Nuclear Energy". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  53. ↑ "Predictive chemistry of realistic systems for advanced nuclear energy". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  54. ↑ "Physics". Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.