Mycelium-based materials

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Example of Mycelium-based composite material Mycelium based composite.png
Example of Mycelium-based composite material

Mycelium, a root-like structure that comprises the main vegetative growth of fungi, has been identified as an ecologically friendly substitute to a litany of materials throughout different industries, including but not limited to packaging, fashion and building materials. Such substitutes present a biodegradable alternative (also known as a "Living Building Material") to conventional materials.

Contents

Mycelium was most notably first examined as an ecologically friendly material alternative in 2007. [1] It was widely popularized by Eben Bayer and Gavin McIntyre, through their work developing mycelium packaging and founding their company, Ecovative. [1] during their time at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Since its inception, the material function has diversified into many niches.

Species and biological structures

Breakdown of mycelium into its smaller components on three length scales Breakdown of mycelium into its smaller components on three length scales.png
Breakdown of mycelium into its smaller components on three length scales

Mycelium-based composites require a fungus and substrate. “Mycelium” is a term referring to the network of branching fibers, called hyphae, that are created by a fungus to grow and feed. When introduced to a substrate, the fungi will penetrate using their mycelium network, which then breaks down the substrate into basic nutrients for the fungi. By this method, the fungi can grow. For mycelium-based composites, the substrate is not fully broken down during this process and is instead kept intertwined with the mycelium. [3]

Example of how the mycelium and substrate look in a mycelium composite Example of how the mycelium and substrate look in a mycelium composite.png
Example of how the mycelium and substrate look in a mycelium composite

The main components of fungi are chitin, polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins. [2] Different compositional amounts of these molecules change the properties of the composites. This is also true for different substrates. Substrates that have higher amounts of chitin and are harder for the mycelium to break down and lead to a stiffer composite formation. [3] [2]

Commonly used species of fungi to grow mycelium are aerobic basidiomycetes, which include Ganoderma sp., Pleurotus sp., and Trametes sp. [4] Basidiomycetes have favorable properties as fungi for creating mycelium based composites because they grow at a relatively steady and quick pace, and can use many different types of organic waste as substrates. [3] Some characteristics that these species differ in are elasticity, water absorption, and strength.

As an example, Trametes hirsuta forms a thicker outer layer of mycelium than Pleurotus ostreatus. This allows the Trametes hirsuta composite to remain flexible and stable in high moisture environments. [4] Additionally, Ganoderma lucidum exhibited higher elasticity, even with different types of substrates. [4] Different combinations of fungi, substrate, and environmental conditions can all affect the properties of the resulting composite; this area of research continues to be explored as the applications for mycelium-based composites expand.

Mechanical properties

For most man-made materials there is a high degree of control in the processing methods of the final product leading to normalized properties. In the case of these mycelium based materials there is less control, because of these materials properties vary significantly and depend not only on the processing of the material but also the growth conditions of the mycelium as well.

Tensile Young's ModulusFailure StrengthFailure Strength
4 - 28 MPa0.8 - 1.1 MPa0.33 - 0.4

Mycelium can also be combined with other natural materials to form bio-composites. These bio-composites will have different properties than the pure materials.

Compressive Young's ModulusDensityThermal Conductivity
0.1 - 1.5 MPa60 – 150 kg/m^30.04 - 0.06 W/m*k

From the article Morphology and mechanics of fungal mycelium, samples were taken from Ecovative Design, LLC and prepared in a specific manner for mechanical testing. [5] Their process begins with introducing the mycelium to calcium and carbohydrates in a filter patch bag where it is allowed to grow over the course of 4–6 days. After this, the mycelium is divided into smaller pieces in order to maintain uniform density and growth. The mycelium is then packed into molds with more growth nutrients that are left for 4 days with special adjustments to temperature, humidity, oxygen, and other factors. Once finished, the samples are taken in sheets and dried at high temperatures to deactivate the growing process. These are the samples that are subjected to mechanical testing. [5]

The mechanical tests included uniaxial tension and compression, conducted using a specific testing machine and performed in ambient conditions. For the tensile tests, dog bone specimens of dimensions 200 mm × 6 mm × 3.5 mm were used. Cuboid specimens of dimensions 20 mm × 20 mm × 16 mm were tested under compression. The strain rate chosen was 4 × 10−4 per second until failure for tensile tests whereas compressive samples were deformed at a rate of 6.25 × 10−3 per second ranging from 2% to 20%. [5]

Manufacturing and growth techniques

The first step in the manufacturing of usable mycelium based materials is growing the raw materials. Mycelium needs a wet environment with sufficient substrate to be grown, and as touched on earlier the difficulty to break down the sugars from the substrate will lead to a tougher material driven mostly by the chitin concentration. With an easier substrate to digest the mycelium will grow faster and conversely have less toughness. [6]

The natural growth pattern of mycelium is a tight network that already has a leathery quality and through compressive manufacturing these qualities can be accentuated and used for leather. [7] For most other uses of mycelium, the fungi are harvested, dried then chopped. In order to reconstitute it and make the material less brittle it is rehydrated and sometimes combined with other natural materials like flax, hemp, and many others. [6]

With the predicted growth in the mycelium based materials market a lot of research is going towards optimizing growth. Differing membranes, light sources, spore density, substrate and substrate moisture concentration. [8]

Applications

Packaging

IKEA has committed to mycelium packaging, making a deal with Ecovative acknowledging the damage that comes from polystyrene packaging and the time it takes the decompose. [3] Plastic foams can take hundreds of years to decompose whereas mushroom based materials can decompose in a few weeks. [3] At Ecovative, they grow mushroom packaging known as MyoComposite which can be grown in less than a week where this manufacturing starts at the Ecovative Design foundry in Green Island, New York. Ecovative partners with multiple local farmers in order to source agricultural products that get turned into packaging. The agricultural materials are cleaned and sorted into molds where the fungi is added and will grow around the material. Once the fungus grows throughout the mold, the final packaging is specially treated to stop the growth process. [3]

According to another company, Grown Bio, mycelium based packaging also has advantages because of the versatility of design shapes as well as having a high shock absorbance and insulation properties. [2] They use a 3D printed reusable mold made from a biopolymer to template their products which are then filled with agricultural waste, water, and lastly the mycelium. The entire process takes a week and once the packaging has served its use, it breaks down and can be used as fertilizer. [2]

In 2012 Ecovative partnered with Sealed Air, at the time a $7.6 billion global company best known for bubble wrap and other packaging, [9] to license their process for making mycelium-based packaging material.

Building materials

Mycelium based composites have not yet been widely adapted as construction replacements for bricks, synthetic foams, or wood. However, their potential for use has been studied in laboratories, and the results from experiments comparing bio-composites and current materials show that bio-composites do have some advantages over traditional materials. [10] [11]

In order to form the structures of the composites, mycelium needs a substrate to grow into. To fabricate these mycelium based composites outside of natural processes, options for substrates include common “left-over” materials such as wood and straw. [10] Recycling waste products contributes to the mycelium based composites' low cost and environmental-friendliness over the current methods and materials. [10]

The main determining factor of the composites’ properties is the type of substrate used. [12] However, the growth conditions and moisture content can also alter the composites' characteristics. To initiate the mycelium growth into the substrate, mycelium is first grown separately and then combined with water and the substrate in a heavily monitored and sterile environment. The mycelium growth can be halted by sterilizing the composite. This is necessary to prevent the mycelium from completely digesting the substrate. [10]

In a study comparing lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA) and expanded vermiculite (EV), two materials used to make concrete, to a mycelium grown brick, the mycelium grown brick was found to be a better insulator. [11] These results are similar when comparing a different mycelium based composite with extruded polystyrene. The thermal insulation and mechanical compression properties were found to be respectively better than and equivalent to the extruded polystyrene. [13]

However, there are some unwanted consequences of the mycelium based composites' structure. The first is the novelty of these materials. They are not yet accepted as replacements for common construction materials because researchers are still working to understand their properties and how these properties are affected by time, environmental conditions, substrate, and mycelium species. Mycelium based composites also have issues with water absorption. [10] Too much water absorption will lead the composites to fail under their mechanical loads. [10] The relationship between density and water absorption was analyzed to find if increasing the composite's density will protect the structure in high humidity environments. The results found that composites with a higher density were slightly affected by the levels of humidity, but remained mechanically sound by the standard necessary for construction materials. [11]

Acoustic dampening

As with other common building applications, mycelium based materials have also been considered for the application of acoustic dampening. Some species recently under particular consideration include Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushrooms) and many individual species from the phylum class Basidiomycetes, the latter class being known to have mycelium bodies composed primarily of chitin. [14] [15]

In order to construct said acoustic panels, the filamentous hyphae of the fungal body must be isolated, harvested and processed. This can be done through careful control of humidity, temperature (85-95F), atmospheric CO2 concentration (5-7%) and chemical/hormonal additives (forskolin/10-oxo-trans-8-decenoic acid (ODA)), in order to not only increase the volume of growth but also encourage the resultant growth to consist of a higher percentage of useful biopolymer material. Fine control over the proportion of cross linkages within the resulting chitin biopolymer is also possible. [5]

Basic diagram of mycelium paneling manufacture Diagram of mycelium based acoustic panel production.jpg
Basic diagram of mycelium paneling manufacture

To construct a panel of acoustic dampening material, the fungus can be mechanically suspended within a rigid chamber, and allowed to grow to fill the space. After the space has been filled, the mycelium is compressed and allowed to grow again into the resultant space, after which the product is dried and post processed for specific applications (embossing or decorative purposes). [5]

Studies have found that the resultant paneling, when compared to conventional acoustic dampening materials like foam, cork, felt, cotton and ceiling tiles, displayed comparable acoustic absorption in frequencies around 3000 Hz and above, while falling short in performance at frequencies below 3000 Hz. [15] [6] Performance of any given panel is highly dependent on the mix of substrate, species and other previously mentioned variables, and yield varying absorbance profiles. [6]

The industry niche of designing mycelium based acoustic damping panels is currently being developed by companies like Mogu, pursuing the market with their FORESTA acoustic panel system. [6] [16]

Fashion and cosmetics

Within the contemporary fashion industry there has been a push for more ethically sourced materials in order to alleviate environmental concerns. [17] To fulfill these needs, companies like Mycoworks and Ecovative have developed sustainable materials to substitute for leather of varying thicknesses and applications. [18] [19] Beyond textiles, mycelium based materials have also found use for substitution in makeup wedges, eye masks and sheet masks due to the materials highly variable mechanical properties. [20]

Many different processes can be used to create said materials, with a variety of fungal species (Ganoderma spp., Perenniporia spp., Pycnoporus spp., etc. [3] ), however generally textiles and other polymeric materials are derived from a growth phase, harvesting phase and pressing phase to create the desired sheet thickness, [3] post processing being used to differentiate the material for specific tasks.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biopolymer</span> Polymer produced by a living organism

Biopolymers are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Like other polymers, biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded in chains to form larger molecules. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides. The Polynucleotides, RNA and DNA, are long polymers of nucleotides. Polypeptides include proteins and shorter polymers of amino acids; some major examples include collagen, actin, and fibrin. Polysaccharides are linear or branched chains of sugar carbohydrates; examples include starch, cellulose, and alginate. Other examples of biopolymers include natural rubbers, suberin and lignin, cutin and cutan, melanin, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ascomycota</span> Division or phylum of fungi

Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus", a microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores, are formed. However, some species of Ascomycota are asexual and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewers' and bakers' yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mold</span> Wooly, dust-like fungal structure or substance

A mold or mould is one of the structures that certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not all fungi form molds. Some fungi form mushrooms; others grow as single cells and are called microfungi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycelium</span> Vegetative part of a fungus

Mycelium is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a monokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible monokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or may grow to span thousands of acres as in Armillaria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypha</span> Long, filamentous structure in fungi and Actinobacteria

A hypha is a long, branching, filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chitin</span> Long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine

Chitin (C8H13O5N)n ( KY-tin) is a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, an amide derivative of glucose. Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only cellulose); an estimated 1 billion tons of chitin are produced each year in the biosphere. It is a primary component of cell walls in fungi (especially filamentous and mushroom forming fungi), the exoskeletons of arthropods such as crustaceans and insects, the radulae, cephalopod beaks and gladii of molluscs and in some nematodes and diatoms. It is also synthesised by at least some fish and lissamphibians. Commercially, chitin is extracted from the shells of crabs, shrimps, shellfish and lobsters, which are major by-products of the seafood industry. The structure of chitin is comparable to cellulose, forming crystalline nanofibrils or whiskers. It is functionally comparable to the protein keratin. Chitin has proved useful for several medicinal, industrial and biotechnological purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zygomycota</span> Division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi

Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a former division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi. The members are now part of two phyla: the Mucoromycota and Zoopagomycota. Approximately 1060 species are known. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat, living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals, while others form symbiotic relationships with plants. Zygomycete hyphae may be coenocytic, forming septa only where gametes are formed or to wall off dead hyphae. Zygomycota is no longer recognised as it was not believed to be truly monophyletic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polypore</span> Group of fungi

Polypores are a group of fungi that form large fruiting bodies with pores or tubes on the underside. They are a morphological group of basidiomycetes-like gilled mushrooms and hydnoid fungi, and not all polypores are closely related to each other. Polypores are also called bracket fungi or shelf fungi, and they characteristically produce woody, shelf- or bracket-shaped or occasionally circular fruiting bodies that are called conks.

Fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. Cultivating fungi can yield foods, medicine, construction materials and other products. A mushroom farm is involved in the business of growing fungi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural fiber</span> Fibers obtained from natural sources such as plants, animals or minerals without synthesis

Natural fibers or natural fibres are fibers that are produced by geological processes, or from the bodies of plants or animals. They can be used as a component of composite materials, where the orientation of fibers impacts the properties. Natural fibers can also be matted into sheets to make paper or felt.

<i>Hericium erinaceus</i> Edible mushroom

Hericium erinaceus, commonly known as the lion's mane mushroom, yamabushitake, bearded tooth fungus, bearded hedgehog, or old man's beard, is an edible mushroom belonging to the tooth fungus group. Native to North America, Europe, and Asia, it can be identified by its long spines, occurrence on hardwoods, and tendency to grow a single clump of dangling spines. The fruit bodies can be harvested for culinary use.

<i>Ganoderma applanatum</i> Species of fungus

Ganoderma applanatum is a bracket fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungus</span> Biological kingdom, separate from plants and animals

A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecovative Design</span> American construction materials manufacturer

Ecovative Design LLC is a materials company headquartered in Green Island, New York, that provides sustainable alternatives to plastics and polystyrene foams for packaging, building materials and other applications by using mushroom technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human interactions with fungi</span> Overview of human–fungi interactions

Human interactions with fungi include both beneficial uses, whether practical or symbolic, and harmful interactions such as when fungi damage crops, timber, food, or are pathogenic to animals.

A living building material (LBM) is a material used in construction or industrial design that behaves in a way resembling a living organism. Examples include: self-mending biocement, self-replicating concrete replacement, and mycelium-based composites for construction and packaging. Artistic projects include building components and household items.

Scytalidium ganodermophthorum is an anthroconidial ascomycete fungus in the Scytalidium genus. It is also known by its teleomorph name Xylogone ganodermophthora. It is the cause of yellow rot in lingzhi mushrooms and it is used in spalting as a pigmenting fungi.

<i>Hypsizygus ulmarius</i> Species of mushroom-forming fungus

Hypsizygus ulmarius, also known as the elm oyster mushroom, and less commonly as the elm leech, elm Pleurotus, is an edible fungus. It has often been confused with oyster mushrooms in the Pleurotus genus but can be differentiated easily as the gills are either not decurrent or not deeply decurrent. While not quite as common as true oyster mushrooms, they have a wide range globally in temperate forests. The mushrooms and vegetative hyphae of this species have been studied in recent years for their potential benefits to human health, and mycoremediation.

Biofoams are biological or biologically derived foams, making up lightweight and porous cellular solids. A relatively new term, its use in academia began in the 1980s in relation to the scum that formed on activated sludge plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungi in art</span> Direct and indirect influence of fungi in the arts

Fungi are a common theme or working material in art. They appear in many different artworks around the world, starting as early as around 8000 BCE. Fungi appear in nearly all art forms, including literature, paintings, and graphic arts; and more recently, contemporary art, music, photography, comic books, sculptures, video games, dance, cuisine, architecture, fashion, and design. There are a few exhibitions dedicated to fungi, and even an entire museum.

References

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  7. ↑ "US Patent for Mycelium growth bed Patent (Patent # 11,032,982 issued June 15, 2021) - Justia Patents Search". patents.justia.com. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
  8. ↑ Vandelook, Simon; Elsacker, Elise; Van Wylick, Aurélie; De Laet, Lars; Peeters, Eveline (2021-12-20). "Current state and future prospects of pure mycelium materials". Fungal Biology and Biotechnology. 8 (1): 20. doi: 10.1186/s40694-021-00128-1 . ISSN   2054-3085. PMC   8691024 . PMID   34930476.
  9. ↑ "Sealed Air and Ecovative Team up to Accelerate Commercialization of New Sustainable Packaging Material | Sealed Air". ir.sealedair.com. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
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  11. 1 2 3 Zhang, Xijin; Hu, Jianying; Fan, Xudong; Yu, Xiong (March 2022). "Naturally grown mycelium-composite as sustainable building insulation materials". Journal of Cleaner Production. 342: 130784. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130784. ISSN   0959-6526. S2CID   246523983.
  12. ↑ Stelzer, Lisa; Hoberg, Friederike; Bach, Vanessa; Schmidt, Bertram; Pfeiffer, Sven; Meyer, Vera; Finkbeiner, Matthias (2021-10-20). "Life Cycle Assessment of Fungal-Based Composite Bricks". Sustainability. 13 (21): 11573. doi: 10.3390/su132111573 . ISSN   2071-1050.
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  16. ↑ "How can bio-materials like fungi help businesses to sustainably flex their interior design?". www.arup.com. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
  17. ↑ Magazine, Smithsonian; Gamillo, Elizabeth. "This Mushroom-Based Leather Could Be the Next Sustainable Fashion Material". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
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