Mycoparasitism

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A mycoparasite is an organism with the ability to parasitize fungi.

Contents

Mycoparasites might be biotrophic or necrotrophic, depending on the type of interaction with their host. [1]

Types of mycoparasitic organisms

Myco-heterotrophy

Various plants may be considered mycoparasites, in that they parasitize and acquire most of their nutrition from fungi during a part or all of their life cycle. These include many orchid seedlings, as well as some plants that lack chlorophyll such as Monotropa uniflora . Mycoparasitic plants are more precisely described as myco-heterotrophs.

Mycoparasitic bacteria

Some bacteria live on or within fungal cells as parasites or symbionts.

Mycoparasitic viruses

Some viruses, called mycoviruses live on or within fungal cells as parasites or symbionts.

Mycoparasitic fungi

Many mycoparasites are fungi, though not all fungicolous fungi are parasites (some are commensals or saprobes. [2] ) Biotrophic mycoparasites acquire nutrients from living host cells. Necrotrophic mycoparasites rely on dead host cells, which they might first kill with toxins or enzymes (saprophytic growth). [2] [3]

Kinds of mycoparasitic interactions

Biotrophic and necrotrophic mycoparasites

Biotrophic mycoparasites get nutrients from living host cells and growth of these parasites is greatly influenced by the metabolism of the host. [4] Biotrophic mycoparasites tend to show high host specificity, and often form specialized infection structures. [5] Necrotrophic mycoparasites can be aggressively antagonistic, invading the host fungus and killing, then digesting components of its cells. Necrotrophic parasites tend to have low host specificity, and are relatively unspecialized in their mechanism of parasitism. [5]

Balanced and destructive mycoparasites

Balanced mycoparasites have little or no destructive effect on the host, whereas destructive mycoparasites have the opposite effect. [6] Biotrophic mycoparasites are generally considered to be balanced mycoparasites; necrotrophic mycoparasites use toxins or enzymes to kill host cells, therefore necrotrophic mycoparasites are usually considered to be destructive mycoparasites. However, in some combinations, the parasite may live during its early development as a biotroph, then kill its host and act more like destructive mycoparasites in late stages of parasitization. [4] [6]

Mechanisms of Mycoparasitism

The four main steps of mycoparasitism include target location; recognition; contact and penetration; and nutrient acquisition. [7]

Target location

Many research indicate that hyphal growth direction, spore germination, and bud tube elongation of mycoparasitic fungi may exhibit tropism in response to detection of a potential host. [8] This tropic recognition reaction is thought to arise from detection of signature chemicals of the host; the direction of the concentration gradient determines the growth direction of the parasite. [9] As the mycoparasitic interaction is host-specific and not merely a contact response, it is likely that signals from the host fungus are recognized by mycoparasites such as Trichoderma and provoke transcription of mycoparasitism-related genes. [10] [11]

Recognition

When mycoparasites contact their fungal host, they will recognize each other. This recognition between mycoparasites and their host fungi may be related to the agglutinin on the cell surface of the mycohost. Carbohydrate residues on the cell wall of mycoparasites might bind to lectins on the surface of the host fungi to achieve mutual recognition. [12]

Contact and penetration

Once a mycoparasitic fungus and its host recognize each other, both may exhibit changes in external form and internal structure. [13] [14] Different mycoparasitic fungi form different structures when interacting with their hosts. For example, the hyphae of some mycoparasitic fungi form specialized contact cells resembling haustoria on the hyphae of their hosts; others may coil around the hyphae of their host fungus or penetrate then grow inside host hyphae. [15] Nectrophic mycoparasites may kill host hyphae with toxins or enzymes before invading them. [3]

Application

Mycoparasitic fungi can be important controls of plant disease fungi in natural systems and in agriculture, and may play a role in integrated pest management (IPM) as biological controls [16]

Some Trichoderma species have been developed as biocontrols of a range of commercially important diseases, [7] and have been applied in the United States, India, Israel, New Zealand, Sweden, and other countries to control plant diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solani , Botrytis cinerea , Sclerotium rolfsii , Sclerotinia sclerotiorum , Pythium spp., and Fusarium spp. as a promising alternative to chemical pesticides. [17] [18]

Further study of mycoparasitism may drive discovery off more bioactive compounds including biopesticides and biofertilizers. [19]

List of fungal bioagents with their trade and manufacturers name [5]
Commercial productsBioagents usedName of the manufacturer
AQ10 biofungicide Ampelomyces quisqualis

isolate M-10

Ecogen, Inc. Israel
Anti-Fungus Trichoderma spp.Grondortsmettingen De Cuester, Belgium
BiofungusTrichoderma spp.Grondortsmettingen De

Cuester n. V.Belgium

Bas-derma Trichoderma viride Basarass Biocontrol Res.

Lab., India

Binab T Trichoderma harzianum

(ATCC 20476) and

Trichoderma polysporum

(ATCC 20475)

Bio-Innovation AB, UK
BiodermaTrichoderma viride/T. harzianumBiotech International Ltd., India
Biofox C Fusarium oxysporum (Non- pathogenic)S. I. A. P. A., Italy
Prestop, Prirnastop Gliocladium catenulatum Kemira Agro. Oy, Finland
Root Pro, Root Prota to SoilgardTrichoderma harzianum/Gliocladium virens strain

GL-21

Efal Agr, Israel Thermo Trilogy, USA
Root shield, Plant shield,

T-22 Planter box

Trichoderma harzianum Rifai strain KRL-AG

(T-22)

Bioworks Inc., USA
SupresivitTrichoderma harzianumBorregaard and Reitzel, Czech Republic
T-22 G, T-22 HBTrichoderma harzianum

strain KRL-AG2

THT Inc., USA
Trichodex, TrichopelTrichoderma harzianumMakhteshim Chemical Works Ltd., USA
Trichopel, Trichoject, Trichodowels, TrichosealTrichoderma harzianum

and Trichoderma viride

Agrimm Technologies Ltd., New Zealand
TrichopelTrichoderma harzianumand Trichoderma virideAgrimm Technologies Ltd., New Zealand
Trichoderma 2000Trichoderma sp.Myocontrol Ltd., Israel
Tri-controlTrichoderma spp.Jeypee Biotechs, India
TriecoTrichoderma virideEcosense Labs Pvt. Ltd.,

Mumbai, India

TYTrichoderma sp.Mycocontrol, Israel

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<i>Botrytis cinerea</i> Species of fungus

Botrytis cinerea is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey mould" or "gray mold".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arbuscular mycorrhiza</span> Symbiotic penetrative association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant

An arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is a type of mycorrhiza in which the symbiont fungus penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant forming arbuscules. Arbuscular mycorrhiza is a type of endomycorrhiza along with ericoid mycorrhiza and orchid mycorrhiza.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glomeromycota</span> Phylum of fungi

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Trichoderma is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae that is present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species in this genus can be characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts. This refers to the ability of several Trichoderma species to form mutualistic endophytic relationships with several plant species. The genomes of several Trichoderma specieshave been sequenced and are publicly available from the JGI.

<i>Thielaviopsis basicola</i> Species of fungus

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References

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  2. 1 2 Hawksworth, D.L.; Kirk, P.M.; Sutton, B.C.; Pegler, D.N. (1995). Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
  3. 1 2 Barnett, H.L. (1963). "The nature of mycoparasitism by fungi". Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 17: 1–14. doi:10.1146/annurev.mi.17.100163.000245.
  4. 1 2 JEFFRIES, PETER (1985). "Mycoparasitism within the Zygomycetes". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 91 (1–2): 135–150. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1985.tb01140.x. ISSN   0024-4074.
  5. 1 2 3 Ashraf, Shabbir; Zuhaib, Mohammad (2013), "Fungal Biodiversity: A Potential Tool in Plant Disease Management", Management of Microbial Resources in the Environment, Springer Netherlands, pp. 69–90, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5931-2_4, ISBN   9789400759305
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  7. 1 2 Ojha, S.; Chatterjee, N. C. (2011). "Mycoparasitism of Trichoderma spp. in biocontrol of fusarial wilt of tomato". Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection. 44 (8): 771–782. doi:10.1080/03235400903187444. ISSN   0323-5408. S2CID   86656967.
  8. ↑ Chet, I.; Harman, G. E.; Baker, R. (1981). "Trichoderma hamatum: Its hyphal interactions withRhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp". Microbial Ecology. 7 (1): 29–38. doi:10.1007/bf02010476. ISSN   0095-3628. PMID   24227317. S2CID   35220790.
  9. ↑ Barak, R.; Elad, Y.; Mirelman, D.; Chet, I. (1985). "Lectins: a possible basis for specific recognition in the interaction of Trichoderma and Sclerotium rolfsii". Phytopathology. 75 (4): 458–462. doi:10.1094/phyto-75-458.
  10. ↑ Druzhinina, Irina S.; Seidl-Seiboth, Verena; Herrera-Estrella, Alfredo; Horwitz, Benjamin A.; Kenerley, Charles M.; Monte, Enrique; Mukherjee, Prasun K.; Zeilinger, Susanne; Grigoriev, Igor V. (2011-09-16). "Trichoderma: the genomics of opportunistic success" (PDF). Nature Reviews Microbiology. 9 (10): 749–759. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2637. ISSN   1740-1526. PMID   21921934. S2CID   11046734.
  11. ↑ Karlsson, Magnus; Durling, Mikael Brandström; Choi, Jaeyoung; Kosawang, Chatchai; Lackner, Gerald; Tzelepis, Georgios D.; Nygren, Kristiina; Dubey, Mukesh K.; Kamou, Nathalie (2015-01-08). "Insights on the Evolution of Mycoparasitism from the Genome of Clonostachys rosea". Genome Biology and Evolution. 7 (2): 465–480. doi:10.1093/gbe/evu292. ISSN   1759-6653. PMC   4350171 . PMID   25575496. CC-BY icon.svg Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  12. ↑ Inbar, Jacob; Menendez, Ana; Chet, Ilan (1996). "Hyphal interaction between Trichoderma harzianum and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and its role in biological control". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 28 (6): 757–763. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(96)00010-7. ISSN   0038-0717.
  13. ↑ Zeilinger, Susanne; Brunner, Kurt; Peterbauer, Clemens K.; Mach, Robert L.; Kubicek, Christian P.; Lorito, Matteo (2003-07-01). "The Nag1 N-acetylglucosaminidase of Trichoderma atroviride is essential for chitinase induction by chitin and of major relevance to biocontrol". Current Genetics. 43 (4): 289–295. doi:10.1007/s00294-003-0399-y. ISSN   0172-8083. PMID   12748812. S2CID   22135834.
  14. ↑ Troian, Rogério Fraga; Steindorff, Andrei Stecca; Ramada, Marcelo Henrique Soller; Arruda, Walquiria; Ulhoa, Cirano José (2014-06-26). "Mycoparasitism studies of Trichoderma harzianum against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum: evaluation of antagonism and expression of cell wall-degrading enzymes genes". Biotechnology Letters. 36 (10): 2095–2101. doi:10.1007/s10529-014-1583-5. ISSN   0141-5492. PMID   24966041. S2CID   254278907.
  15. ↑ Goh, Yit Kheng; Vujanovic, Vladimir (2010). "Biotrophic mycoparasitic interactions betweenSphaerodes mycoparasiticaand phytopathogenicFusariumspecies". Biocontrol Science and Technology. 20 (9): 891–902. doi:10.1080/09583157.2010.489147. ISSN   0958-3157. S2CID   85250682.
  16. ↑ Karlsson, Magnus; Durling, Mikael Brandström; Choi, Jaeyoung; Kosawang, Chatchai; Lackner, Gerald; Tzelepis, Georgios D.; Nygren, Kristiina; Dubey, Mukesh K.; Kamou, Nathalie (2015-01-08). "Insights on the Evolution of Mycoparasitism from the Genome of Clonostachys rosea". Genome Biology and Evolution. 7 (2): 465–480. doi:10.1093/gbe/evu292. ISSN   1759-6653. PMC   4350171 . PMID   25575496.
  17. ↑ Malik, Abdul; Grohmann, Elisabeth; Alves, Madalena, eds. (2013). Management of Microbial Resources in the Environment. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5931-2. ISBN   978-94-007-5930-5. S2CID   7596550.
  18. ↑ Howell, C. R. (2003). "Mechanisms Employed by Trichoderma Species in the Biological Control of Plant Diseases: The History and Evolution of Current Concepts". Plant Disease. 87 (1): 4–10. doi:10.1094/pdis.2003.87.1.4. ISSN   0191-2917. PMID   30812698. S2CID   44803233.
  19. ↑ Vinale, Francesco; Sivasithamparam, Krishnapillai; Ghisalberti, Emilio L.; Marra, Roberta; Woo, Sheridan L.; Lorito, Matteo (2008). "Trichoderma–plant–pathogen interactions". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 40 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.07.002. ISSN   0038-0717.
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