Nuclear anxiety

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Nuclear weapons, such as this Pershing II, have been the cause of worldwide nuclear anxiety during the Cold War. Pershing-2 single stage test.jpg
Nuclear weapons, such as this Pershing II, have been the cause of worldwide nuclear anxiety during the Cold War.

Nuclear anxiety, also known as nucleomituphobia, refers to anxiety or even a phobia in the face of a potential future nuclear holocaust, particularly during the Cold War and more recently the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Contents

American anthropologist Margaret Mead viewed such anxiety in the 1960s as a violent survivalist impulse that should instead be channeled toward a recognition of the need for peace. [1] American psychologist Michael D. Newcomb and others defined "nuclear anxiety" in the 1980s post-détente period, [2] Newcomb developing a psychometric to evaluate it with the Nuclear Attitudes Questionnaire (NAQ) in 1986, although mental effects had been at issue since the start of the Atomic Age.

The term originates from the Cold War period and has been defined as a "fear of nuclear war and of its consequences". [2] It was particularly examined as an issue in child and adolescent psychiatry and much of the research on nuclear anxiety among youth was conducted in the 1980s in many countries. [3] [4] [5] Due to the influence of the particular context under which studies were carried out, replicability is difficult if not impossible to verify. More recent studies regarding nuclear anxiety in the 21st century are relatively scarce.

Causes

Historical context

The buildup of fear regarding the plausibility of nuclear threat was embedded in the historical and political context of the Cold War. Political events such as the use of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 had proven the destructive power of nuclear weapons, while the Cuban Missile Crisis and Euromissile Crisis contributed to broadcasting to the wider public the increase of tensions between superpowers, and warned of the increasing possibility of resorting to nuclear missiles. Fear of mutually assured destruction stoked nuclear anxiety. [6]

Nuclear anxiety took a greater importance in the political landscape of the United States around the 1984 presidential elections. Two adolescents spoke to Congress of their fears of nuclear war in an event hosted by the United States House Select Committee on Children, Youth and Families on 20 September 1983. [7] The American Orthopsychiatric Association led programmes around nuclear anxiety in children. [7] In addition, Walter Mondale mentioned “nuclear nightmares” experienced by American youth in a speech given during his 1984 election campaign. [7]

Dispute

The existence of nuclear anxiety experienced by youth in the United States in the Cold War has been challenged by Joseph Adelson and Chester E. Finn Jr. in their 1985 article Terrorizing Children. They denounce the political left of spreading fear among children for political ends. The authors argue that nuclear anxiety was not prevalent in children before the term was coined, and that surveys measuring nuclear anxiety regularly confronted youth to the thought of nuclear weapons to distill fear. [7]

Adelson and Finn's Terrorizing Children caused controversy [8] as the authors criticizes the American Psychological Association's nuclear anxiety-related programmes, calling it a “fifty-ring circus” led by “luminaries of the Left”, and questioned the credibility of researchers and journals that published evidence of nuclear anxiety among children, which has been considered unscientific and unfair criticism. [8]

It has also been argued that wealth, ethnicity and social class have a role in the cause of nuclear anxiety. [9] This claim asserts that wealthy, white children of upper class are more susceptible to suffer from nuclear anxiety as they are exposed to fewer discriminatory or material concerns than children of colour and of lower social class. [9]

Both arguments regarding fear-mongering and social conditioning were debated by other researchers who found no correlation between nuclear anxiety, political preferences and social class. [6] [8]

Prevalence during the Cold War

More than 400,000 people protested in Amsterdam [nl] against the nuclear arms race between the U.S./NATO and the Soviet Union, 21 November 1981 Overzicht op Museumplein met spandoek The Dutch disease is better for peace o, Bestanddeelnr 253-8627.jpg
More than 400,000 people protested in Amsterdam  [ nl ] against the nuclear arms race between the U.S./NATO and the Soviet Union, 21 November 1981

Nuclear anxiety was prevalent in many parts of the world during the 1980s. [3] [6] Nuclear threats were identified among northern European students as their biggest concern, as the second or third biggest concern among North American students in 1986, [4] and was a source of anxiety in Third World countries, such as among Colombian youth. [5] It was rated the most frequently mentioned concern among Ontario students in 1985 [10] and Finnish children and teenagers in a national survey in the same year. [3]

Newcomb's Nuclear Attitudes Questionnaire

Michael D. Newcomb created a Nuclear Attitudes Questionnaire for a study with the aim of assessing 722 young adults’ opinions and fears of nuclear power plants and weapons. [10] The fifteen-item questionnaire uses likert-scale questions to evaluate four constructs: nuclear concern, nuclear support, fear of the future and nuclear denial. Possible responses to each item were “Strongly disagree or disagree”, “Don't know”, and “Agree or strongly agree”.

Description of Newcomb's NAQ
1Safety of nuclear power plants
2Concern over proliferation of nuclear weapons
3Concern over living near a nuclear power plant
4Necessity of producing the most nuclear weapons possible
5Cost efficiency of nuclear power plants
6Probability of nuclear war in next 10 years
7Link between nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons
8Provision of nuclear power plants to other countries by United States
9Fear of quantity of nuclear weapons in existence
10Probability of survival in nuclear war
11Never concerned about nuclear war
12Overreaction over threat of nuclear war
13Feelings of depression caused by threat of nuclear war
14Feelings of the world being unsafe due to nuclear weapons
15Reluctance to raise a child due to threat of nuclear war

Impact on mental health

Nuclear anxiety has been found to have negative effects on mental health on people of all ages, and especially on children and teenagers, [4] [5] [6] [10] and have been found in many countries throughout the world due to the omnipresence of nuclear threats. [5] These impacts typically include feelings of anxiety, helplessness, [11] frequent worrying, stress, [4] hopelessness, [12] loss of meaning or purpose, [12] fear, [13] low life satisfaction, [6] [10] depression, [10] increased drug use, [10] “disturbances in maturational development” among youth, [10] worthlessness, [6] loneliness, [6] alienation, [6] low self-esteem [6] and low subjective wellbeing. [14] Nuclear anxiety also correlated among teenagers with getting into trouble. [6]

Some gender differences have been found with regards to these effects. A study has found that men were less inclined to report anxiety and more inclined to deny the threats of nuclear warfare than women, potentially due to machismo according to the author. [10] Women also reported lower life satisfaction and men higher drug use. [10]

Impacts on mental health also depend on the extent of worry about nuclear threats. While worry to the level of “concern” rarely leads to degradation of mental health, while worry to the level of “despair” has been found to have impacts on mental health that remain stable over time, but that subjects can live with. [6]

Parental denial of the existence of a nuclear threat or of nuclear anxiety worsens its consequences. [3]

Effects on mental health also depended on whether subjects participated in disarmament activism. Those who did not faced bigger anxiety-related issues lasting until at least mid-adulthood, while those who did reported no decrease in mental health. [13]

Impact on activism

Nuclear anxiety has also had an impact on political activism, notably through peace protests and the nuclear freeze movement. Nuclear anxiety has been correlated with greater opposition to nuclear armament and with the desire to take action about the issue. [14] Those who believe that survival is unlikely or impossible in the advent of a nuclear war are likely to turn to antinuclear activism, seeking to educate others about such threats and protesting to pressure governments to disarm. [10] A greater interest in political processes is likely for those whose nuclear anxiety does not surpass the level of ‘concern’, while despaired individuals may be more likely to support disarmament but withdraw from politics due to distrust towards governments and anti-nationalistic feelings. [6]

Protests such as the nuclear freeze movement have also been shown to likely incite support for disarmament among those experiencing nuclear anxiety. [6]

Treatment

Treatment of nuclear anxiety mainly revolves around finding a way to live with fear and taking action to limit its nefarious effects on mental health. Preparing food and medical supplies to enhance chances of survival has been correlated with increased optimism, key to reducing anxiety. [10] Discussing fears with peers, family and teachers has also been useful to alleviate anxiety and increase confidence. [3] [11] [12] Activism may be very efficient at reducing nuclear anxiety, [4] [13] [14] as it helps minimise feelings of helplessness and empowers subjects. Mobilisation can greatly reduce adverse effects of nuclear anxiety. [13]

The participation of relatives, especially parents, in disarmament activism has been linked to higher participation of subjects and higher optimism. [15]

Some nuclear anxiety workshops have found success at reducing nuclear anxiety and finding a meaning to life in the nuclear age, especially those practising logotherapy. [11]

One study [14] compiled coping mechanisms used to treat nuclear anxiety as follows:

Nuclear Coping Strategies, Hamilton et al. [14]
Coping mechanism
1Distraction
2Situation redefinition
3Direct action
4Catharsis
5Acceptance
6Seeking social support
7Relaxation
8Religion

On the other hand, denial or avoidance of emotional distress and of activism may prevent recovery. [3] [12] [13]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anxiety</span> Unpleasant state of inner turmoil over anticipated events

Anxiety is an emotion which is characterised by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different from fear in that fear is defined as the emotional response to a present threat, whereas anxiety is the anticipation of a future one. It is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phobia</span> Anxiety disorder classified by a persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation

A phobia is an anxiety disorder, defined by an irrational, unrealistic, persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation. Phobias typically result in a rapid onset of fear and are usually present for more than six months. Those affected go to great lengths to avoid the situation or object, to a degree greater than the actual danger posed. If the object or situation cannot be avoided, they experience significant distress. Other symptoms can include fainting, which may occur in blood or injury phobia, and panic attacks, often found in agoraphobia and emetophobia. Around 75% of those with phobias have multiple phobias.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anxiety disorder</span> Cognitive disorder with an excessive, irrational dread of everyday situations

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Ergophobia is described as an extreme and debilitating fear associated with work, a fear of finding or losing employment, or fear of specific tasks in the workplace. The term ergophobia comes from the Greek "ergon" (work) and "phobos" (fear).

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is a mental and behavioral disorder, specifically an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry about events or activities. Worry often interferes with daily functioning, and individuals with GAD are often overly concerned about everyday matters such as health, finances, death, family, relationship concerns, or work difficulties. Symptoms may include excessive worry, restlessness, trouble sleeping, exhaustion, irritability, sweating, and trembling.

Terror management theory (TMT) is both a social and evolutionary psychology theory originally proposed by Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon, and Tom Pyszczynski and codified in their book The Worm at the Core: On the Role of Death in Life (2015). It proposes that a basic psychological conflict results from having a self-preservation instinct while realizing that death is inevitable and to some extent unpredictable. This conflict produces terror, which is managed through a combination of escapism and cultural beliefs that act to counter biological reality with more significant and enduring forms of meaning and value—-basically countering the personal insignificance represented by death with the significance provided by symbolic culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worry</span> Thoughts, images, emotions, and actions of a pessimistic nature

Worry refers to the thoughts, images, emotions, and actions of a negative nature in a repetitive, uncontrollable manner that results from a proactive cognitive risk analysis made to avoid or solve anticipated potential threats and their potential consequences.

Test anxiety is a combination of physiological over-arousal, tension and somatic symptoms, along with worry, dread, fear of failure, and catastrophizing, that occur before or during test situations. It is a psychological condition in which people experience extreme stress, anxiety, and discomfort during and/or before taking a test. This anxiety creates significant barriers to learning and performance. Research suggests that high levels of emotional distress have a direct correlation to reduced academic performance and higher overall student drop-out rates. Test anxiety can have broader consequences, negatively affecting a student's social, emotional and behavioural development, as well as their feelings about themselves and school.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nomophobia</span> Fear or dislike of not having mobile phone

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear holocaust</span> Scenario of civilization collapse or human extinction by nuclear weapons

A nuclear holocaust, also known as a nuclear apocalypse, nuclear annihilation, nuclear armageddon, or atomic holocaust, is a theoretical scenario where the mass detonation of nuclear weapons causes widespread destruction and radioactive fallout. Such a scenario envisages large parts of the Earth becoming uninhabitable due to the effects of nuclear warfare, potentially causing the collapse of civilization, the extinction of humanity, and/or the termination of most biological life on Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social anxiety disorder</span> Anxiety disorder associated with social situations

Social anxiety disorder (SAD), also known as social phobia, is an anxiety disorder characterized by sentiments of fear and anxiety in social situations, causing considerable distress and impairing ability to function in at least some aspects of daily life. These fears can be triggered by perceived or actual scrutiny from others. Individuals with social anxiety disorder fear negative evaluations from other people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Death anxiety</span> Anxiety caused by thoughts of death

Death anxiety is anxiety caused by thoughts of one's own death, and is also known as thanatophobia. Individuals affected by this kind of anxiety experience challenges and adversities in many aspects of their lives. Death anxiety is different from necrophobia, which refers to an irrational or disproportionate fear of dead bodies or of anything associated with death. Death anxiety has been found to affect people of differing demographic groups as well, such as men versus women, young versus old, etc. Different cultures can manifest aspects of death anxiety in differing degrees.

Separation anxiety disorder (SAD) is an anxiety disorder in which an individual experiences excessive anxiety regarding separation from home and/or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment. Separation anxiety is a natural part of the developmental process. It is most common in infants and little children, typically between the ages of six to seven months to three years, although it may pathologically manifest itself in older children, adolescents and adults. Unlike SAD, normal separation anxiety indicates healthy advancements in a child's cognitive maturation and should not be considered a developing behavioral problem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on mental health</span> Effects of climate change on mental health

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mental health in education</span>

Mental health in education is the impact that mental health has on educational performance. Mental health often viewed as an adult issue, but in fact, almost half of adolescents in the United States are affected by mental disorders, and about 20% of these are categorized as “severe.” Mental health issues can pose a huge problem for students in terms of academic and social success in school. Education systems around the world treat this topic differently, both directly through official policies and indirectly through cultural views on mental health and well-being. These curriculums are in place to effectively identify mental health disorders and treat it using therapy, medication, or other tools of alleviation.

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Pregnancy-related anxiety is a distinct anxiety contextualized by pregnancy specific fears, worries, and concerns. Pregnancy-related anxiety is characterized by increased concerns or excessive fears and worries about their unborn baby, childbirth, body image, and impending motherhood. This anxiety is also known as pregnancy-specific anxiety, pregnancy anxiety, pregnancy distress, or pregnancy concerns and was first identified in 1956 when women were observed to be anxious about different aspects of their pregnancy. However, it was not until conventional measures of anxiety and depression were shown to not adequately capture this anxiety that the first empirical evidence was provided. Subsequent studies have provided further support for the distinctiveness of pregnancy-related anxiety from state and trait anxiety, depression and anxiety disorder symptomology.

References

  1. ↑ Feldman, James W. (2017-05-01). Nuclear Reactions: Documenting American Encounters with Nuclear Energy. University of Washington Press. ISBN   978-0-295-99963-0.
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  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Solantaus, Tytti; Rimpelä, Matti (1986). "Mental Health and the Threat of Nuclear War—A Suitable Case for Treatment?". International Journal of Mental Health. 15 (1–3): 261–275. doi:10.1080/00207411.1986.11449033. ISSN   0020-7411.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Goldenring, Joseph; Doctor, Ron (1986). "Teen-Age Worry About Nuclear War: North American and European Questionnaire Studies". International Journal of Mental Health. 15 (1/3, MENTAL HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF LIFE IN THE NUCLEAR AGE): 72–92. doi:10.1080/00207411.1986.11449021.
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  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Diamond, Greg; Bachman, Jerald (1986). "High-School seniors and the nuclear threat, 1975-1984: POLITICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF CONCERN AND DESPAIR". International Journal of Mental Health. 15 (1/3, MENTAL HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF LIFE IN THE NUCLEAR AGE): 210–241. doi:10.1080/00207411.1986.11449030.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Adelson, J; Finn Jr, C (1985). "Terrorizing Children". Commentary. 79 (4): 29.
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  9. 1 2 Coles, R (1985) [8 December]. "Children and the bomb". New York Times Magazine.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Newcomb, Michael (1986). "Nuclear attitudes and reactions: Associations with depression, drug use, and quality of life". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 50 (5): 906–920. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.5.906. PMID   3712231.
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  12. 1 2 3 4 Bisio, Thomas; Crisan, Pamela (1984). "Stress Management and Nuclear Anxiety: A Structured Group Experience". Journal of Counseling & Development. 63 (2): 108–109. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1984.tb02770.x.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Boehnke, Klaus; Wong, Becky (2011). "Atomangst: Ergebnisse einer 21-jährigen Längsschnittstudie zur Problemverschiebung von globalen Bedrohungen in private Ängste". Forum der Psychoanalyse (in German). 27 (2): 177–201. doi:10.1007/s00451-011-0071-y. ISSN   0178-7667.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Hamilton, Scott; Keilin, William; Knox, Thomas; Naginey, Judith (1989). "When Thoughts Turn Toward Nuclear War: Stress Responses, Coping Strategies, and the Importance of Trait Anxiety in Moderating Effects on "Mental Health"". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 19 (2): 111–139. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1989.tb00048.x.
  15. ↑ Raudalen, Magne; Finney, Ole Johan (1986). "Children's and Teen-Agers' Views of the Future". International Journal of Mental Health. 15 (1/3, MENTAL HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF LIFE IN THE NUCLEAR AGE): 114–125. doi:10.1080/00207411.1986.11449023.
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