Parecclesion

Last updated • 8 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

A parecclesion (Greek: παρεκκλήσιον, translated as "Chapel," romanized: parekklesion, lit. 'side-church') [1] is a side mortuary chapel found in early Byzantine churches. [2]

Contents

The parecclesion was often used for ceremonial and funerary purposes, which often consisted of services performed before burial, as well as services performed after to commemorate the individuals who have departed. This was a significant process that helped guide the community and helped the community understand the passage of the departed. [2] [3] [4] [5] The ceremonies were arranged as soon as a person would pass away.

Many characteristics form a parecclesion, for instance, the church in which it is located, is an architectural aspect, most significant for its exterior and interior design. The similarities of parecclesions are how they are an additional chapel separate from the main church, which is why it is labeled as 'side chapel.' The parecclesion holds an important role in unifying the human and the Divine. [6] Most churches are sacred places considered to be a “Heaven on Earth.” [6] Because of its exterior and interior design, such as the inclusion of high ceilings and the iconography of religious figures depicted on the walls, it helps maintain a divine experience. They are typically adorned with Frescos portraying religious figures, while addressing various themes such as resurrection, salvation, hope, Life after death, etc. [2] These depicted scenes show the viewer what to expect at the end of time. [2]

There are two examples of existing parecclesions:

Parecclesion, c. 1316-1321, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul) Chora Church Constantinople 2007 010.jpg
Parecclesion, c. 1316-1321, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul)

Byzantine Art

The Roman Empire, also referred to as the Byzantine Empire, began in 330 B.C. [7] During this time, Constantine the Great, who was the Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, decided to convert to Christianity, which expanded Christianity throughout his empire. [8] Byzantine art has a close association to the ceremonies that were being executed inside the pareclessions, religious beliefs were now being manifested inside the parecclesions. [9] [10] Some of the artistic creations included in the parecclesion were- Mosaics and frescos. [2] [7] [11] During the Byzantine Empire, most art with in the pareclessions centered religious icons, which is why religious figures are commonly found throughout the interior of Byzantine churches. [2] [11]

Byzantine art is divided into three periods because of its diverse range of art styles throughout the years. Early Byzantine art (c. 330- 750), Middle Byzantine art (c. 850-1204), and late Byzantine art (c.1261-1453). [12] [13] Early Byzantine art was created during the rule of Emperor Constantine, who adopted Christianity. [12] Religious Icons such as the Virgin (Theotokos)and Child between saints (Theodore and George), as well as Jesus Christ, are depicted often. [12] These illustrations of religious figures served a spiritual purpose, which was to encapsulate a heavenly realm in these structures [12] Middle Byzantine art was an era of the revitalization of classical forms and motifs. The material gold (leaf) was common during this period. [12] Finally, Late Byzantine art consisted of religious iconography and utilized symbolic imagery. The incorporation of gold continued, but was more common during middle Byzantine art. [12]

Chora Parecclesion

The Chora Church or Kariye Mosque (now a museum) is located in Istanbul, Turkey. It is a prime example of Byzantine architecture which is also known for its incorporation of Byzantine art. It was once a church that was a part of a Monastery of Byzantine. [2] The Chora holds a parecclesion rebuilt by Theodore Metochites, a wealthy official, who added the parecclesion to the Chora from 1316 to 1321 which was the fifth phase of construction in the church. [2] [7] [14]

Funeral rituals

Like previously mentioned, the parecclesion was meant to serve as a chapel for ceremonial and funerary purposes. They took place in the parecclesion under the dome of the west bay, and were often done before burial and after as well to commemorate those who passed. [10] The rituals followed a specific procedure. This process included washing and dressing the body of the deceased individual, and then placing the body inside the coffin where it then would be taken to the parecclesion. [5] Once there, a prayer is read over the coffin, as a way to protect the soul of the deceased individual during its spiritual transition. [5] The services and rituals at the parecclesion could be done without disturbing those attending for regular use of the church and the Narthexes since there it is an additional chapel of the church. [10] Theodore Metochites added the parecclesion and was buried in that chapel once he passed in c.1332. [2] An additional eight tombs were added after the place was decorated. [15]

Architecture

The exterior of the parecclesion has unique architectural elements that makes it distinctive. For instance, one being its intricate design. The exterior of the parreclesion incorporates middle Byzantine elements, such as a sloping site and its adding additional chambers. Another element that makes the architecture unique is its reconstructions and additions. The Parreclesion already is an addition chamber added to the side of the church, but it was also one of the many parts of the church that was reconstructed in the fourteenth century. Some of the reconstruction that was done in the parecclesion was its modification to support the original arches. The original arches in the parecclesion were made very thick, causing them to be very heavy. The structure needed reinforcement of the columns to provide support for the structure. [16]

Interior

The Anastasis, c. 1316-1321, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul) The Last Judgement, c. 1316-1321, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul) Chora Church Constantinople 2007 013.jpg
The Anastasis, c. 1316-1321, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul)
The Last Judgement, c. 1316-1321, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul) Chora Church Constantinople 2007 012.jpg
The Last Judgement, c. 1316-1321, Chora Church, Constantinople (Istanbul)

The parecclesion is enwreathed in frescoes and mosaics that depict scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and Christ. [17] [14] Byzantine art, characterized by their vivid colors, complex features, and realistic styles, demonstrate patron Theodore Metochites' optimism for redemption after death. [14] The remarkable art pieces in the Choras Paracclesion include:

  1. the Anastasis [14] [18]
  2. The Last Judgement. [14] [18]
  3. Virgin and Child [18]
  4. Heavenly Court of Angels [18]
  5. Two Panels of Moses [18]

The Anastasis

The Anastasis fresco is located inside of the Choras parecclesion towards the end of the parecclesion, inside of the dome. [19] Not only is the Anastasis fresco incredible to look at, it is an important fresco inside the Choras parecclesion for numerous reasons, one being its symbolism. The Anastasis fresco is a symbol of resurrection or rebirth, depicting Christ diving down into the underworld and vigorously pulling Adam and Eve out of their tombs. [20] It also demonstrates his victory over death, his triumphal resurrection after his crucifixion, his divinity, and shows the salvation of two human souls . [20] [19] These themes within the parecclesion frescoes are important not just because there is a religious figure in them that they worship, but also because it sheds a light on a morbid topic, bringing a new perspective to the viewer about death. It encourages hope for salvation, that the "end," is not necessary the end of our lives, while also depicting Jesus using his power to help and guide  

The Last Judgement

The Virgin and Child, painted on dome inside Chora parecclesion Chora Church Constantinople 2007 011.jpg
The Virgin and Child, painted on dome inside Chora parecclesion

The Last Judgement, similar to the Anastasis fresco, is another significant piece reflecting salvation and the afterlife. [19] The Last Judgment is a part of a group of mosaics and frescoes in the parecclesion. [19] The Last Judgment introduces a Christian and Catholic belief, which is when the world comes to an end, God will have the last Judgment by deciding every person's fate, either joining him in heaven, or spending your eternity in hell. [21] Our freewill, our decisions we chose to act on, result in determining our eternal consequences.

Virgin and Child

The Virgin and Child is a fresco located in the dome of the parecclesion. It depicts Virgin Mary holding Jesus Christ right in the center of the dome surrounded by a host of angels. [22] Looking up at the dome, the seams of the dome guide your eyes towards the Virgin and Child, showing that this piece is of great importance. Underneath the dome, Hymnographers appear on the pendentives of the dome. And underneath the pendentives, we see scenes from the Old Testament that portray "types" of the Virgin and Christ. [23] By having images of the Virgin and Child, as well as prefigure events from the Old Testament that demonstrates the Christian stories of salvation, it plays an important role which is to serve as a testimony of the redemptive powers the Virgin and Child possess. [24]

Pammakaristos parecclesion

The Church of the pammakaristos, (also known as All-Blessed Mother of God), is another well known Byzantine structure located in Istanbul, Turkey, that holds a parecclesion (an addition side chapel) within it. [25] The church was built somewhere between the eleventh and twelfth centuries, but the parecclesion of the church was not added until the thirteenth century (after 1310). [25] The parecclesion of pammakaristos was used as a monumental chapel, which was built by Martha Gabas, attributed to her late husband Michael Doukas Glabas Tarchaneiotes, a Byzantine general and aristocrat of the Andronikos II Palaiologos, who was buried inside the chapel shortly after it was made. [25] [26] [27]

This parecclesion was also used for similar functions as the Chora's parecclesion. Similar to the Chora, the pammakaristos parecclesion was used as a memorial chapel, later converted into a Mosque, and today the mosque remains as a museum with a restored parecclesion accessible to the public.

Architecture

The pammakaristos parecclesion has distinctive architectural elements. The exterior of the structure is composed of recessed brickwork. An inscription dedicated to Jesus Christ, is found on both the interior and exterior of the parecclesion. The interior of the parecclesion also has complex arches and vaults, as well as high ceilings. The parecclesion is about twenty feet wide. Because of its proportions, the light that shines through the parecclesion gives it a sense of divinity. [28] [29] [30]

Interior

Although this church is a lot smaller, the pammakaristos church is known for its large collection of Byzantine mosaics. One mosaic that is actually found in the parecclesion is located under the dome, which shows Christ the pantocrator in the center of the dome, surrounded by old testament prophets. In this mosaics he is portrayed as the ruler and creator of the world. [30] The twelve prophets- Moses, Joseph, Zephaniah, Micah, Joel, Zechariah, Obadiah, Habakkuk, Jonah, Malachi, Ezekiel, and Isaiah, are the prophets circled around the dome.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hagia Sophia</span> Mosque and former church in Istanbul, Turkey

Hagia Sophia, officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque,(Turkish: Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi; Greek: Μεγάλο Τζαμί της Αγίας Σοφίας), is a mosque and former church serving as a major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The last of three church buildings to be successively erected on the site by the Eastern Roman Empire, it was completed in AD 537, becoming the world's largest interior space and among the first to employ a fully pendentive dome. It is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and is said to have "changed the history of architecture". The site was an Eastern rite church from AD 360 to 1453, except for a brief time as a Latin Catholic church between the Fourth Crusade in 1204 and 1261. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, it served as a mosque until 1935, when it became an interfaith museum, until being controversially reclassified solely as a mosque in 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mosaic</span> Image made from small colored tiles

A mosaic is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place by plaster/mortar, and covering a surface. Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and were particularly popular in the Ancient Roman world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Studenica Monastery</span> Church in Serbia, Serbia

The Studenica Monastery is a 12th-century Serbian Orthodox monastery situated 39 kilometres (24 mi) southwest of Kraljevo and 40.9 kilometres (25.4 mi) east of Ivanjica, in central Serbia. It is one of the largest and richest Serb Orthodox monasteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine architecture</span>

Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great established a new Roman capital in Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. There was initially no hard line between the Byzantine and Roman Empires, and early Byzantine architecture is stylistically and structurally indistinguishable from late Roman architecture. The style continued to be based on arches, vaults and domes, often on a large scale. Wall mosaics with gold backgrounds became standard for the grandest buildings, with frescos a cheaper alternative.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daphni Monastery</span> Medieval monastery in Athens

Daphni or Dafni is an eleventh-century Byzantine monastery eleven kilometers northwest of central Athens in the suburb of Chaidari, south of Athinon Avenue (GR-8A). It is situated near the forest of the same name, on the Sacred Way that led to Eleusis. The forest covers about 18 km2 (7 sq mi), and surrounds a laurel grove. "Daphni" is the modern Greek name that means "laurel grove", derived from Daphneion (Lauretum).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gelati Monastery</span> Georgian Orthodox monastery near Kutaisi, Georgia

Gelati is a medieval monastic complex near Kutaisi in the Imereti region of western Georgia. One of the first monasteries in Georgia, it was founded in 1106 by King David IV of Georgia as a monastic and educational center.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine art</span> Art of the Byzantine Empire

Byzantine art comprises the body of artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of western Rome and lasted until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the Islamic states of the eastern Mediterranean, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hagia Sophia, Trabzon</span> Mosque in Trabzon, Turkey

Hagia Sophia is a formerly Greek Orthodox church that was converted into a mosque following the conquest of Trabzon by Mehmed II in 1461. It is located in Trabzon, northeastern Turkey. It was converted into a museum in 1964 and back into a mosque in 2013. The building dates back to the thirteenth century, when Trabzon was the capital of the Empire of Trebizond. It is located near the seashore and two miles west of the medieval town's limits. It is one of a few dozen Byzantine sites extant in the area and has been described as being "one of the finest examples of Byzantine architecture".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basilica of San Vitale</span> Minor basilica in Ravenna, Italy

The Basilica of San Vitale is a late antique church in Ravenna, Italy. The sixth-century church is an important surviving example of early Byzantine art and architecture, and its mosaics in particular are some of the most-studied works in Byzantine art. It is one of eight structures in Ravenna inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Its foundational inscription describes the church as a basilica, though its centrally-planned design is not typical of the basilica form. Within the Roman Catholic Church it holds the honorific title of basilica for its historic and ecclesial importance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The Chora</span> Medieval Greek Orthodox church/mosque in Istanbul, Turkey

The Chora Church or Kariye Mosque is a former church, now converted to a mosque, in the Edirnekapı neighborhood of Fatih district, Istanbul, Turkey. It is mainly famous for its outstanding Late Byzantine mosaics and frescos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine Fresco Chapel</span> Museum building in Houston, Texas

The Byzantine Fresco Chapel is a part of the Menil Collection in Houston, Texas, near the University of St. Thomas. From February 1997 to February 2012, it displayed the only intact Byzantine frescoes of this size and importance in the western hemisphere. The Byzantine frescoes had been taken from the church of St. Evphemianos in Lysi, Cyprus in the 1980s. In September 2011, the collection announced that the frescos would be permanently returned to Cyprus in February 2012, following the conclusion of a long-term loan agreement with the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus. The frescoes had been presented at the museum by agreement with the Church of Cyprus, their owners, but the church decided not to extend the loan further. They will not return to their original home as Lysi is now in Northern Cyprus, but will be displayed at the Byzantine Museum in Nicosia. On March 4, 2012, the Byzantine Fresco Chapel closed, but re-opened in 2015 for the first in a series of site-specific projects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hosios Loukas</span> Monastery in Boeotia, Greece

Hosios Loukas is a historic walled monastery situated near the town of Distomo, in Boeotia, Greece. Founded in the mid-10th century, the monastery is one of the most important monuments of Middle Byzantine architecture and art, and has been listed on UNESCO's World Heritage Sites since 1990, along with the monasteries of Nea Moni and Daphnion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pammakaristos Church</span> Greek Orthodox Byzantine church in Istanbul, Turkey

The Pammakaristos Church, also known as the Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos, is one of the most famous Byzantine church buildings in Istanbul, Turkey, and was the last pre-Ottoman building to house the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Converted in 1591 into the Fethiye Mosque, it is today partly a museum housed in a side chapel or parekklesion. One of the most important examples of Constantinople's Palaiologan architecture, the mosque contains the largest quantity of Byzantine mosaics in Istanbul after the Hagia Sophia and The Chora.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalenderhane Mosque</span> Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey

Kalenderhane Mosque is a former Eastern Orthodox church in Istanbul, Turkey, converted into a mosque by the Ottomans. With high probability the church was originally dedicated to the Theotokos Kyriotissa. The building is sometimes referred to as Kalender Haneh Jamissi and St. Mary Diaconissa. This building represents one among the few extant examples of a Byzantine church with domed Greek cross plan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Church-Mosque of Vefa</span> Mosque in Turkey

Church-Mosque of Vefa is a former Eastern Orthodox church converted into a mosque by the Ottomans in Istanbul. The church was possibly dedicated to Hagios Theodoros, but this dedication is far from certain. The complex represents one of the most important examples of Comnenian and Palaiologan architecture of Constantinople.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Architecture of Istanbul</span> Overview of architecture in Istanbul

The architecture of Istanbul describes a large mixture of structures which reflect the many influences that have made an indelible mark in all districts of the city. The ancient part of the city is still partially surrounded by the Walls of Constantinople, erected in the 5th century by Emperor Theodosius II to protect the city from invasion. The architecture inside the city proper contains buildings and structures which came from Byzantine, Genoese, Ottoman, and modern Turkish sources. The city has many architecturally significant entities. Throughout its long history, Istanbul has acquired a reputation for being a cultural and ethnic melting pot. As a result, there are many historical mosques, churches, synagogues, palaces, castles and towers to visit in the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Church of St. Mary of Blachernae</span> Church in Istanbul, Turkey

The Church of Saint Mary of Blachernae is an Eastern Orthodox church in Mustafa Paşa Bostanı Sokak in Ayvansaray in the Fatih district of Istanbul, just inside the old walled city. During the latter part of the Byzantine period, the original church complex on the site was one of the most important sanctuaries of Byzantium, arguably outstripping Hagia Sophia in importance due to its proximity to the Palace of the Blachernae. The Byzantine church complex was destroyed in 1434, and in the nineteenth century a small new church was built on the site. Today it is protected by a high wall, and fronted by a garden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palaeologan Renaissance</span> Final stylistic period of Byzantine art

The Palaeologan Renaissance or Palaiologan Renaissance is the final period in the development of Byzantine art. Coinciding with the reign of the Palaiologoi, the last dynasty to rule the Byzantine Empire (1261–1453), it was an attempt to restore Byzantine self-confidence and cultural prestige after the empire had endured a long period of foreign occupation. The legacy of this era is observable both in Greek culture after the empire's fall and in the Italian Renaissance. Scholars of the time utilized several classical texts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peribleptos Monastery, Mystras</span>

The Peribleptos Monastery is a late Byzantine-era monastery in Mystras, Greece. It was probably built in the mid-14th century by the first Despot of the Morea, Manuel Kantakouzenos, and named after one of the most celebrated monasteries of Byzantine Constantinople. The frescos in the main church, dating between 1348 and 1380, are a very rare surviving late Byzantine cycle, crucial for the understanding of Byzantine art. It is named after St. Mary of Peribleptos, of Byzantine, Constantinople (Istanbul). The Monastery is built into the side of a cliff with a cave supporting the structure. This architectural style is known as the "Mystras style" and is prevalent in several churches and monasteries in the area, this style is typified by a resemblance to a castle. It is constructed of squared stones with inlaid tiles. The complexity and unique variations of the shape of the structure of the exterior create an interior surface inside the monastery that lends itself to the ethereal quality of the frescoes covering the walls. These have been described as "delicate and subdued" in Byzantine Architecture and Decoration

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doula Mouriki</span> Greek historian (1934–1991)

Doula Mouriki was a Greek Byzantinologist and art historian. She made important contributions to the study of Byzantine art in Greece.

References

  1. ↑ Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 1951.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "» Picturing salvation — Chora's brilliant Byzantine mosaics and frescoes". smarthistory.org. Retrieved 2023-11-01.
  3. ↑ "Church of Chora, Istanbul's Byzantine Marvel". Church of Chora, Istanbul's Byzantine Marvel. Retrieved 2023-11-01.
  4. ↑ "parekklesion". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 2023-11-01.
  5. 1 2 3 Akyürek, Engin. "Funeral Ritual in the Parecclesion of Chora Church".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. 1 2 Ousterhout, Robert (1995). "Temporal Structuring in the Chora Parekklesion". Gesta. 34 (1): 63–76. doi:10.2307/767125. ISSN   0016-920X. JSTOR   767125. S2CID   193301508.
  7. 1 2 3 The rise and fall of the Byzantine Empire - Leonora Neville, 9 April 2018, retrieved 2023-11-01
  8. ↑ "The Importance Of Christianity In The Byzantine Empire | Bartleby". www.bartleby.com. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  9. ↑ "Byzantine art | Characteristics, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  10. 1 2 3 Necipoğlu, Nevra (2001). Byzantine Constantinople: Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life. BRILL. ISBN   978-90-04-11625-2.
  11. 1 2 AP Art History - Byzantine Art and Architecture, 30 September 2020, retrieved 2023-11-01
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Beginner's guide to Byzantine art & mosaics (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2023-11-02.
  13. ↑ "Byzantine art", Wikipedia, 2023-11-01, retrieved 2023-11-02
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 "Picturing salvation — Chora's brilliant Byzantine mosaics and frescoes (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2023-11-01.
  15. ↑ "10.6: Late Byzantine Art". Humanities LibreTexts. 2022-03-19. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
  16. ↑ Crandale, Max (2009-03-27). "Chora Architecture | Chora Museum Istanbul" . Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  17. ↑ Hattap, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sibel Onat. Vocational School, Architectural Restoration Programme, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, (Turkey).: 10 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336375867.{{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 "The Chora", Wikipedia, 2023-11-09, retrieved 2023-11-21
  19. 1 2 3 4 "» Picturing salvation — Chora's brilliant Byzantine mosaics and frescoes". smarthistory.org. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
  20. 1 2 "Category:Anastasis fresco (Chora Church) - Wikimedia Commons". commons.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
  21. ↑ "Last Judgment by Michelangelo (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
  22. ↑ "Church of Chora, Istanbul's Byzantine Marvel". Church of Chora, Istanbul's Byzantine Marvel. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  23. ↑ "» Picturing salvation — Chora's brilliant Byzantine mosaics and frescoes". smarthistory.org. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  24. ↑ "Picturing salvation — Chora's brilliant Byzantine mosaics and frescoes (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  25. 1 2 3 "Pammakaristos Church", Wikipedia, 2023-11-09, retrieved 2023-11-20
  26. ↑ "Parekklesion of the Pammakaristos Church, Istanbul". Orthodox Arts Journal. 2012-10-26. Retrieved 2023-11-21.
  27. ↑ nomadicniko (2012-05-14). "Pammakaristos Church (Istanbul, Turkey)". Nomadic Niko. Retrieved 2023-11-21.
  28. ↑ "Parekklesion of the Pammakaristos Church, Istanbul". Orthodox Arts Journal. 2012-10-26. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  29. ↑ "Pammakaristos Church", Wikipedia, 2023-11-09, retrieved 2023-12-04
  30. 1 2 nomadicniko (2012-05-14). "Pammakaristos Church (Istanbul, Turkey)". Nomadic Niko. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.