A top-level domain (TLD) is one of the domains at the highest level in the hierarchical Domain Name System of the Internet after the root domain. The top-level domain names are installed in the root zone of the name space. For all domains in lower levels,it is the last part of the domain name,that is,the last non empty label of a fully qualified domain name. For example,in the domain name www.example.com.,the top-level domain is com. Responsibility for management of most top-level domains is delegated to specific organizations by the ICANN,an Internet multi-stakeholder community,which operates the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA),and is in charge of maintaining the DNS root zone.
Onion routing is a technique for anonymous communication over a computer network. In an onion network,messages are encapsulated in layers of encryption,analogous to layers of an onion. The encrypted data is transmitted through a series of network nodes called onion routers,each of which "peels" away a single layer,uncovering the data's next destination. When the final layer is decrypted,the message arrives at its destination. The sender remains anonymous because each intermediary knows only the location of the immediately preceding and following nodes. While onion routing provides a high level of security and anonymity,there are methods to break the anonymity of this technique,such as timing analysis.
Barbara Bluestein Simons is an American computer scientist and the former president of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). She is a Ph.D. graduate of the University of California,Berkeley and spent her early career working as an IBM researcher. She is the founder and former co-chair of USACM,the ACM U.S. Public Policy Council. Her main areas of research are compiler optimization,scheduling theory and algorithm analysis and design.
Nouriel Roubini is an Iranian-American economist. He teaches at New York University's Stern School of Business and is chairman of Roubini Macro Associates LLC,an economic consultancy firm.
A dark net or darknet is an overlay network within the Internet that can only be accessed with specific software,configurations,or authorization,and often uses a unique customized communication protocol. Two typical darknet types are social networks,and anonymity proxy networks such as Tor via an anonymized series of connections.
The Free Haven Project was formed in 1999 by a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students with the aim to develop a secure,decentralized system of data storage. The group's work led to a collaboration with the United States Naval Research Laboratory to develop Tor,funded by DARPA.
The Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE),previously known as the Institute for International Economics (IIE),is an American think tank based in Washington,D.C. It was founded by C. Fred Bergsten in 1981 and is currently led by Adam S. Posen. The institute conducts research,provides policy recommendations,and publishes books and articles on a wide range of topics related to the US economy and international economics.
In anonymity networks,it is important to be able to measure quantitatively the guarantee that is given to the system. The degree of anonymity is a device that was proposed at the 2002 Privacy Enhancing Technology (PET) conference. There were two papers that put forth the idea of using entropy as the basis for formally measuring anonymity:"Towards an Information Theoretic Metric for Anonymity",and "Towards Measuring Anonymity". The ideas presented are very similar with minor differences in the final definition of .
.onion is a special-use top level domain name designating an anonymous onion service,which was formerly known as a "hidden service",reachable via the Tor network. Such addresses are not actual DNS names,and the .onion TLD is not in the Internet DNS root,but with the appropriate proxy software installed,Internet programs such as web browsers can access sites with .onion addresses by sending the request through the Tor network.
An anonymizer or an anonymous proxy is a tool that attempts to make activity on the Internet untraceable. It is a proxy server computer that acts as an intermediary and privacy shield between a client computer and the rest of the Internet. It accesses the Internet on the user's behalf,protecting personal information of the user by hiding the client computer's identifying information. Anonymous proxy is the opposite of transparent proxy,which sends user information in the connection request header.
Mohamed Aly El-Erian is an Egyptian-American economist and businessman. He is President of Queens' College,Cambridge and chief economic adviser at Allianz,the corporate parent of PIMCO where he was CEO and co-chief investment officer (2007–2014). He was chair of President Obama's Global Development Council (2012–17),and is a columnist for Bloomberg View,and a contributing editor to the Financial Times.
Tor,short for The Onion Router,is free and open-source software for enabling anonymous communication. It directs Internet traffic through a free,worldwide,volunteer overlay network,consisting of more than six thousand relays,to conceal a user's location and usage from anyone performing network surveillance or traffic analysis. Using Tor makes it more difficult to trace a user's Internet activity. Tor's intended use is to protect the personal privacy of its users,as well as their freedom and ability to communicate confidentially through IP address anonymity using Tor exit nodes.
Digital privacy is often used in contexts that promote advocacy on behalf of individual and consumer privacy rights in e-services and is typically used in opposition to the business practices of many e-marketers,businesses,and companies to collect and use such information and data. Digital privacy can be defined under three sub-related categories:information privacy,communication privacy,and individual privacy.
Dmitri Alperovitch is a Russian-born American computer security industry executive. He is co-founder and former chief technology officer of CrowdStrike. In August 2011,as vice president of threat research at McAfee,he published Operation Shady RAT,a report on suspected Chinese intrusions into at least 72 organizations,including defense contractors,businesses worldwide,the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee. Alperovitch is a naturalized American citizen born in Russia who came to the United States in 1994 with his family.
The dark web is the World Wide Web content that exists on darknets:overlay networks that use the Internet but require specific software,configurations,or authorization to access. Through the dark web,private computer networks can communicate and conduct business anonymously without divulging identifying information,such as a user's location. The dark web forms a small part of the deep web,the part of the Web not indexed by web search engines,although sometimes the term deep web is mistakenly used to refer specifically to the dark web.
The Tor Project,Inc. is a Seattle-based 501(c)(3) research-education nonprofit organization founded by computer scientists Roger Dingledine,Nick Mathewson and five others. The Tor Project is primarily responsible for maintaining software for the Tor anonymity network.
Roger Dingledine is an American computer scientist known for having co-founded the Tor Project. A student of mathematics,computer science,and electrical engineering,Dingledine is also known by the pseudonym arma. As of December 2016,he continues in a leadership role with the Tor Project,as a project Leader,Director,and Research Director.
Hard privacy technologies are methods of protecting data. Hard privacy technologies and soft privacy technologies both fall under the category of privacy enchancing technologies. Hard privacy technologies allow online users to protect their privacy through different services and applications without the trust of the third-parties. The data protection goal is data minimization and reduction of the trust in third-parties and the freedom to conceal information or to communicate.
Nick Mathewson is an American computer scientist and co-founder of The Tor Project. He,along with Roger Dingledine,began working on onion routing shortly after they graduated from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the early 2000s. He is also known by his pseudonym nickm. Mathewson and Dingledine were the focus of increased media attention after the leak of NSA's highly classified documents by Edward Snowden,and the subsequent public disclosure of the operation of XKeyscore,which targeted one of The Tor Project's onion servers along with Mixminion remailer which are both run at MIT.
