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Xerxes I, commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC. He was the son of Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus the Great. In Western history, Xerxes is best known for his invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Persian defeat. Xerxes was designated successor by Darius over his elder brother Artobazan and inherited a large, multi-ethnic empire upon his father's death. He consolidated his power by crushing revolts in Egypt and Babylon, and renewed his father's campaign to subjugate Greece and punish Athens and its allies for their interference in the Ionian Revolt. In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led a large army and crossed the Hellespont into Europe. He achieved victories at Thermopylae and Artemisium before capturing and razing Athens. His forces gained control of mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth until their defeat at the Battle of Salamis. Fearing that the Greeks might trap him in Europe, Xerxes retreated with the greater part of his army back to Asia, leaving behind Mardonius to continue his campaign. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively ending the Persian invasion.
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The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the First Persian Empire, was the ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the largest empire by that point in history, spanning a total of 5.5 million square kilometres. The empire spanned from the Balkans and Egypt in the west, West Asia as the base, the majority of Central Asia to the northeast, and the Indus Valley to the southeast.
Around 535 BCE, the Persian king Cyrus the Great initiated a protracted campaign to absorb parts of India into his nascent Achaemenid Empire. In this initial incursion, the Persian army annexed a large region to the west of the Indus River, consolidating the early eastern borders of their new realm. With a brief pause after Cyrus' death around 530 BCE, the campaign continued under Darius the Great, who began to re-conquer former provinces and further expand the Achaemenid Empire's political boundaries. Around 518 BCE, the Persian army pushed further into India to initiate a second period of conquest by annexing regions up to the Jhelum River in what is today known as Punjab. At peak, the Persians managed to take control of most of modern-day Pakistan and incorporate it into their territory.
Sasanian art, or Sassanid art, was produced under the Sasanian Empire which ruled from the 3rd to 7th centuries AD, before the Muslim conquest of Persia was completed around 651. In 224 AD, the last Parthian king was defeated by Ardashir I. The resulting Sasanian dynasty would last for four hundred years, ruling modern Iran, Iraq, and much territory to the east and north of modern Iran. At times the Levant, much of Anatolia and parts of Egypt and Arabia were under its control. It began a new era in Iran and Mesopotamia, which in many ways was built on Achaemenid traditions, including the art of the period. Nevertheless, there were also other influences on art of the period that came from as far as China and the Mediterranean.
Boryza was a Persian city in Thrace founded by King Darius the Great. Hecataeus of Miletus mentioned Boryza as being located in the land of the Thynians on the southwestern Black Sea coast to the north of Byzantium, modern day Bulgaria and Turkey. The city was also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium. According to the modern historian Miroslav Izdimirski, Boryza must have been the residence of a Persian hyparch.
Dedoplis Mindori is an archaeological site in Georgia's east-central region of Shida Kartli, at the confluence of eastern and western Prone, tributaries of the Kura. A multi-layer site, it has yielded some Acheulean and Mousterian stone tools, burials from the Late Bronze to the Iron ages, and several settlements and burials from the Classical Antiquity and Middle Ages. Of particular importance is a substantial complex of what once were religious buildings, dated to the 2nd–1st century BC, and inscribed on the list of the Immovable Cultural Monuments of National Significance. The Dedoplis Mindori plain is adjoined by a group of mounds, known as Aradetis Orgora, where archaeological finds span several periods of local culture sequence, from the Chalcolithic to the Early Middle Ages.
Matthew Philip Canepa is an American historian of art, and archaeology; as well as a writer and educator. He is a Professor of Art History and inaugural holder of the Elahé Omidyar Mir-Djalali Presidential Chair in Art History and Archaeology of Ancient Iran at the University of California, Irvine.
Boges was a Persian official and military commander, who functioned as governor (hyparchos) of Eion in Thrace under the King of Kings Xerxes I. According to Herodotus, following the Persian defeats at Plataea and Mycale, Boges refused to abandon Eion when it was besieged by the Athenians and Cimon in 476/5. When he perhaps could have surrendered the town and marched out safely, Boges decided to endure till the end, as he wished not to suffer the ignominy of falling into the enemy’s hands. When the provisions of Eion had finally run out during the protracted siege, Boges built a large fire, killed his wife, children, concubines and servants, and threw them into the fire. He then reportedly collected all pieces of silver and gold that were stored in Eion and threw them into the river Strymon. He then threw himself onto the fire. Boges was highly honored by Xerxes I for his valiance and loyalty, and even Herodotus himself concurred. When Herodotus wrote his Histories in the second half of the fifth century BC, Boges was still praised by the Persians for his deeds. The children of Boges who survived within the Achaemenid Empire were also greatly honoured by Xerxes I.
The Kyrbasia was a type of headgear worn by the satraps of the Achaemenid Empire. It was later adopted by several post-Achaemenid dynasties, including the early Arsacids of Parthia, the early Ariarathids of Cappadocia, the Orontids of Sophene, and the Frataraka of Persis.
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 Briant, Pierre (2018). From Cyrus to Seleukos: Studies in Achaemenid and Hellenistic History. UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. p. 313. ISBN 978-0999475546.
- 1 2 Gagoshidze, Iulon; Knauß, Florian; Babaev, Ilyas (2007). "An Achaemenid " Palace " at Qarajamirli (Azerbaijan) Preliminary Report on the Excavations in 2006". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 13 (1–2): 31–45. doi:10.1163/157005707X212652.
- ↑ Knauss, Florian; Gagoshidze, Iulon; Babaev, Ilias (2010). "A Persian Propyleion in Azerbaijan: Excavations at Karacamirli". In Nieling, Jens; Rehm, Ellen (eds.). Achaemenid Impact in the Black Sea: Communication of Powers. Black Sea Studies. Vol. 11. Aarhus University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-8779344310.
- 1 2 3 Canepa, Matthew P. (2018). The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE. University of California Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0520964365.
- ↑ Knauss, Florian; Gagoshidze, Iulon; Babaev, Ilias (2010). "A Persian Propyleion in Azerbaijan: Excavations at Karacamirli". In Nieling, Jens; Rehm, Ellen (eds.). Achaemenid Impact in the Black Sea: Communication of Powers. Black Sea Studies. Vol. 11. Aarhus University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-8779344310.
- 1 2 3 Canepa, Matthew P. (2018). The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE. University of California Press. p. 350. ISBN 978-0520964365.
- 1 2 3 Knauss, Florian; Gagoshidze, Iulon; Babaev, Ilias (2010). "A Persian Propyleion in Azerbaijan: Excavations at Karacamirli". In Nieling, Jens; Rehm, Ellen (eds.). Achaemenid Impact in the Black Sea: Communication of Powers. Black Sea Studies. Vol. 11. Aarhus University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-8779344310.