Persian revolts against Ali (656-661)

Persian Rebellions against the Arab Caliphate
Part of First Fitna and Muslim conquest of Persia
Date 650-661 Location Iran Result Rashidun Caliphate victory [1] Territorial changes Arab resumption of control over Persia
Belligerents
Rashidun Caliphate	Persian Rebels
Commanders and leaders
Uthman ibn Affan Ali ibn Abi Talib Sa'id ibn al-As Hasan bin Ali Husayn bin Ali Abdallah ibn Ma'mar Tamimi   † Abdallah ibn Amir Abdullah ibn Abbas Ziyad ibn Abih	Yazdegerd III Dahak Several Unorganised rebels
Strength
4000+	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	In Istakhr 40000+ killed

The Persian Rebellions took place during the Caliphate of Uthman and the First Fitna. ^[2]

Background

Main article: Muslim conquest of Persia

See also: Battle of Istakhr (650–653)

The Persians revolted against the early Arab caliphs due to several factors of cultural, religious, and economic discontents . After the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab conquests, Persian culture experienced severe setback . Much of the population viewed the Arab rule as a foreign occupation over the indigenous institutions and imposed non indigenous government structures. Arabic became the language of administration with Persian elites loosing their power over the state which led to further cultural conflicts.

Socio-economic conflicts

Main article: Islamization of Iran

The followers of Zoroastrianism finded themselves increasingly discriminated and marginalised . Initially the Arabs considered them to be the People of the Book , however due to high taxation and restrictions over the years widespread discontent in the region . The destruction of fire temples and religious customs further made Arab rule unpopular among the population. ^[3]

Economically, many Persians suffered under the taxation of Jizya and Kharaj, more exclusively under corrupt governors . This became an important factor for several revolts throughout the region, like the Tabaristan uprising and other localized resistance to Arab rule . ^[4]

Islamic sources recognise the Persian resistance faced during its conquest. The Isfahan province held a rebellion after its initial submission, enforcing renewed military efforts to re-establish Arab control over it. ^[5] Moreover, the nobility and common people in various regions like Khorasan and Fars offered resistance to Caliph Uthman's reign, resulting in multiple military responses to suppress the rebels . ^[6]

Rebellions against Uthman

Kurdish Rebellion

A rebellion organised by the Kurds broke out in Idha under the Caliphate of Uthman , Abu Musa al-Ash'ari governor of Basra called out for "jihad" against the rebels however failed to gain popular support for the campaign. Upon request by Basrans to remove Abu Musa from office , Uthman revoked his office and appointed Abdallah bin Amir. ^[7]

Istakhr Rebellions

Abdallah ibn Ma'mar Tamimi , an arab governor , was killed by the Persian rebels in Istakhr. The rebels invited Yazdegerd III to Istakhr , who was on his route to Khorasan. Abdallah ibn Amer established his governorship of Fars on behalf of the Islamic Caliphate. A Iranian general Dahak , captured Darabgerd from the Arabs. Amer surrounded the city with his basran cavalry and pacified the populations of Istakhr after it's capture. ^[8]

In 653 , a revolt broke out in Istakhr during the reign of Uthman with the refusal of paying Jizya . Abdallah bin Abbas was sent to suppress the rebellion , the civilan population was massacred and the revolt was suppressed. ^[9]

Tabaristan Campaign

After the death of Umar , several regions in Iran rose in revolt. Sa'id ibn al-As along with Hasan ibn Ali , Husayn ibn Ali launched an expedition to Tabaristan. He sieged Abrashahr then he camped at Qumis. He later arrived in Tamisah , where he subsequently captured the fort of Tamisah. Sa'id also captured the Namiyah desert. ^{[10] [11]}

Campaign to the East

Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi was sent to carry out military campaigns in the Sistan region which was captured during the reign of Umar but rose in revolt under Uthman thwart the campaigns , Darabgard and Fasa revolted but was suppressed. ^[12] The first conflict took place in Zaliq during a persian festival. The muslims emerged victorious and the persians sought peace. The arab army captured Qarquqya without any resistance. The arab army then launched military expeditions in the regions of Afghanistan. ^{[13] [14]}

Kerman also rose in revolt in during 651-652 , the revolt was suppressed by Amir. The arab forces searched the entire province as well as moved southwards towards Hormuz. The persian refugees in Kerman scattered in all directions as a result of the conflict. ^[15]

Merv Massacre

When Uthman sent Umayr , Abd Allah ibn Amir encamped near Merv. During the winter season , the people of Merv agreed on the enterance of Amir in the city. However , on learning that the people were planning a revolt against Amir , he pacified the civilans in the city. Uthman rebuked him for his actions. ^{[16] [17]}

Persian revolts against Ali

Uprising in Istakhr

Some Persians rose in uprisings due to discontent from the Arab conquests and internal instability within the early Muslim state. Many Persian Muslims felt isolated by the tribal bias of the Arab elite and the limited number of non-Arabs into the political body of the caliphate . ^[18]

Moreover, the instability of the First Fitna and Ali's conflicts with Mu'awiya I laid opportunities for Persian rebels to hold uprisings, especially in regions like Khorasan where loyalty to the Sasanian legacy was strong . ^[19]

After the Arab conquest of Persia, the city of Istakhr remained as the capital of resistance against the newly established Islamic administration . The city, strongly held to the Sasanian legacy which became a crucial subject for the rebels who fought to reclaim the loss of Persian nobility and sought to restore the imperialist rule of the Persian nobility . During Ali ibn Abi Talib's reign, this resistance had emerged into a greater uprising . Mainly in the regions where Persian clergy opposed the centralised power under the Arabs, which they viewed as a threat to their heritage. Ziyad ibn Abihi was given the duty to suppress the rebellion of the city. ^[20]

Kerman Revolt

After the people of Fars and Kerman rose in revolt and objected to pay Kharaj, Ali sent Ziyad with 4000 troops and suppressed their revolt. ^{[21] [22]}

Khorasan revolt

Khorasan also rebelled against Ali, Ali sent Hubayrah to suppress the uprising. The rebels refused to surrender and Hubayrah returned to Ali. Ali sent Khulayd , who besieged Nishapur and Marv until rebels vowed peace. Hubayrah took with him maids of royal blood who wished to marry Hasan and Hussein which got refused by Ali. ^{[23] [24]}

Khuzestan revolt

Persian Muslims and Christians participated in their revolt in Khuzestan against Ali, however was failed and their leader being killed. ^[22]

Sistan revolt

Ali sent expeditions into deeper provinces in the east including his consolidation of control over Zaranj and conducted several raids against bandits and rebels in Balochistan. ^{[25] [26] [27]}

Aftermath

Eastern Iran was recaptured by Mu'awiya I after the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate . He sent numerous campaigns and Basran forces to collect tribute across the region. ^{[28] [29]}

See also

• Umayyad invasions of Egypt
• Battle of Siffin
• Mu'awiya I's Southern Campaigns (658-661)

References

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