Persian revolts against the Rashidun Caliphate

Persian Rebellions against the Arab Caliphate
Part of First Fitna and Muslim conquest of Persia
Date 650–661 Location Iran Result Rashidun victory [1] Territorial changes Caliphate's control over Persia restored
Belligerents
Rashidun Caliphate	Persian Rebels
Commanders and leaders
Uthman ibn Affan Ali ibn Abi Talib Sa'id ibn al-As Abd Allah ibn Amir Abd Allah ibn Abbas Ziyad ibn Abihi Hasan ibn Ali Husayn ibn Ali	Unorganised rebels: Yazdegerd III Dahak Qarin  † Unknown leader in Khuzestan  †
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

The Persian Rebellions took place during the during the rule of the third Rashidun caliph Uthman and the reign of the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali, who presided during the First Fitna. The revolts erupted in various parts of Iran in an unorganised manner. The rebellions during the reigns of Caliphs Uthman and Ali were suppressed which resulted in the consolidation of Arab control over Iran. ^[2]

Background

Main article: Muslim conquest of Persia

See also: Battle of Istakhr (650–653)

The Persians revolted against the early Muslim caliphs due to several factors including cultural, religious, and economic discontents. After the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab conquests, Persian culture experienced a severe setback. Much of the population viewed the Arab rule as a foreign occupation over the indigenous institutions and an imposition of non-indigenous government structures. Arabic became the language of administration with Persian elites losing their power over the state which led to further cultural conflicts.

Socio-economic conflicts

Main article: Islamization of Iran

The followers of Zoroastrianism found themselves increasingly discriminated and marginalised. Initially the Arabs considered them to be the People of the Book, however due to high taxation and restrictions over the years widespread discontent in the region. The destruction of fire temples and religious customs further made Arab rule unpopular among the population. ^[3]

Economically, many Persians suffered under the taxation of the Jizya and Kharaj, particularly under corrupt governors. This became an important factor for several revolts throughout the region, like the Tabaristan uprising and other localized resistance to Arab rule. ^[4]

Islamic sources recognise the Persian resistance faced during its conquest. The Isfahan province held a rebellion after its initial submission, requiring renewed military efforts to re-establish Arab control over it. ^[5] Moreover, the nobility and common people in various regions like Khorasan and Fars offered resistance to Caliph Uthman's reign, resulting in multiple military responses to suppress the rebels. ^[6]

Rebellions against Uthman

Kurdish Rebellion

A rebellion organised by the Kurds broke out in Idha during the reign of the Caliphate of Uthman. Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, the governor of Basra, called for war against the rebels however failed to gain popular support for the campaign. Upon the Basrans' request to remove Abu Musa from his office, Uthman dismissed him and appointed Abd Allah bin Amir as his replacement. ^[7]

Istakhr Rebellions

Abdallah ibn Ma'mar Tamimi, an Arab governor, was killed by the Persian rebels in Istakhr. The rebels invited Yazdegerd III to Istakhr, who was on his route to Khorasan. Abd Allah ibn Amir established himself as governor of Fars on behalf of the Caliphate. An Iranian general named Dahak captured Darabgerd from the Arabs. Ibn Amir surrounded the city with his Basran cavalry and suppressed the population of Istakhr after its capture. ^[8]

In 653, a revolt broke out in Istakhr during the reign of Uthman with the refusal of paying the Jizya. Abd Allah ibn Abbas was sent to crush the rebellion, and the civilian population was suppressed. ^[9]

Tabaristan Campaign

After the assassination of Umar, several regions in Iran rose in revolt. Sa'id ibn al-As along with Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali launched an expedition to Tabaristan. He besieged Abrashahr before camping at Qumis. He later arrived in Tamisah, where he subsequently captured the fort of Tamisah. Sa'id also captured the Namiyah desert. ^{[10] [11]}

Campaign to the East

Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi was sent to carry out military campaigns in the Sistan region which was captured during the reign of Umar but rose in revolt under Uthman. Darabgard and Fasa revolted but was suppressed. ^[12] The first conflict took place in Zaliq during a Persian festival. The Muslims emerged victorious and the Persians sought peace. The Muslim Arab army captured Qarquqya without any resistance, then launched military expeditions in the regions of Afghanistan. ^[13]

Kerman also rebelled in 651-652, but the revolt was suppressed by Abd Allah ibn Amir. The Arab forces searched the entire province and moved southwards towards Hormuz. The Persian refugees in Kerman scattered in all directions as a result of the conflict. ^[14]

Merv Rebellions

When Uthman sent Umayr, Abd Allah ibn Amir encamped near Merv. During the winter season, the people of Merv agreed on the entrance of Ibn Amir into the city. However, on learning that the people were planning a revolt against Ibn Amir, he suppressed the civilians in the city. Uthman rebuked him for his actions. ^{[15] [16]}

Quhistan Insurrection

An Iranian notable named Qarin raised an insurrection in Quhistan and began collecting forty thousand recruits from Herat and Tabasain and Badgihas. The insurrection took place during the last years of Uthman's reign. Qarin and many of his supporters were killed and the insurrection was suppressed. ^[17]

Rebellions against Ali

Uprising in Istakhr

Some Persians rebelled due to discontent from the Arab conquests and internal instability within the early Muslim state. Many Persian Muslims felt isolated by the tribal bias of the Arab elite and the limited number of non-Arabs into the political body of the caliphate. ^[18]

Moreover, the instability caused by the First Fitna and Caliph Ali's conflict with the long-time governor of the Levant, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, provided the opportunity for Persian rebels to revolt, especially in regions like Khorasan where loyalty to the Sasanian legacy was strong. ^[19]

After the Arab conquest of Persia, the city of Istakhr remained as the capital of resistance against the newly established Islamic administration. The city strongly held to the Sasanian legacy which became a crucial subject for the rebels who fought to reclaim the loss of Persian nobility and sought to restore the imperial rule of the Persian nobility. During Ali ibn Abi Talib's reign, this resistance had emerged into a greater uprising, primarily in the regions where Persian clergy opposed the centralised power of the Arabs, which they viewed as a threat to their heritage. Ziyad ibn Abihi was tasked with suppressing the rebellion of the city. ^[20]

Kerman Revolt

After the people of Fars rebelled, a revolt also broke out in Kerman with the refusal of paying the Kharaj. Caliph Ali sent Ziyad with 4000 troops who suppressed their revolt. ^{[21] [22]}

Khorasan Revolt

Khorasan also rebelled against Ali, who sent Hubayrah to suppress the uprising. The rebels refused to surrender and Hubayrah returned to Ali, who then sent Khulayd to besiege Nishapur and Marv until rebels vowed peace. Hubayrah took with him maids of royal blood who wished to marry Hasan and Husayn which was refused by Ali. ^{[23] [24]}

Khuzestan Revolt

Persian Muslims and Christians participated in the revolt in Khuzestan against Ali, however it was foiled and their leader was killed. ^[22]

Sistan revolt

Ali sent expeditions deeper into the Eastern provinces of the Caliphate, including his consolidation of control over Zaranj and several raids against bandits and rebels in Balochistan. ^{[25] [26] [27]}

Aftermath

Eastern Iran was reconquered by Mu'awiya I after the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. He sent numerous campaigns under Basran forces to collect tribute across the region. ^{[2] [28]}

See also

• Kharijite Rebellions against Ali
• Ali's Eastern Campaigns
• Umayyad invasions of Egypt
• Battle of Siffin
• Mu'awiya I's Southern Campaigns (658-661)

References

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