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The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda was an international court established in November 1994 by the United Nations Security Council in Resolution 955 in order to adjudicate people charged for the Rwandan genocide and other serious violations of international law in Rwanda,or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states,between 1 January and 31 December 1994. The court eventually convicted 61 individuals and acquitted 14.
The Rwandan genocide,also known as the genocide against the Tutsi,occurred between 7 April and 19 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War. During this period of around 100 days,members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group,as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa,were killed by armed Hutu militias. Although the Constitution of Rwanda states that more than 1 million people perished in the genocide,the actual number of fatalities is unclear,and some estimates suggest that the real number killed was likely lower. The most widely accepted scholarly estimates are around 500,000 to 800,000 Tutsi deaths.
This is a bibliography for primary sources,books and articles on the personal and general accounts,and the accountabilities,of the 1994 Rwandan genocide.
The Gacaca courts were a system of transitional justice in Rwanda following the 1994 genocide. The term 'gacaca' can be translated as 'short grass' referring to the public space where neighborhood male elders (abagabo) used to meet to solve local problems. The name of this system was then adopted in 2001 as the title of the state's new criminal justice system "Gacaca Courts" to try those deemed responsible for the 1994 Rwandan genocide where over an estimated 500,000 people were killed,tortured and raped. In 1994,the United Nations Security Council created the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda to try high-ranking government and army officials accused of genocide,war crimes,and crimes against humanity. The Gacaca Courts were established in law in 2001,began to operate on a trial basis in 2002 and eventually came to operate as trials throughout the country by early 2007. The Gacaca courts were presented as a method of transitional justice,claimed by the Rwandan government to promote communal healing and rebuilding in the wake of the Rwandan Genocide. Rwanda has especially focused on community rebuilding placing justice in the hands of trusted citizens.
Scott Straus is an American political scientist currently serving as a professor of political science at the University of California,Berkeley. Strauss received a BA in English from Dartmouth College and a PhD in political science from the University of California,Berkeley. His research focuses on genocide,violence,human rights and African politics. He was previously a freelance journalist based in Africa,and in 2000 was a visiting fellow at Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris. He is the 2018 winner of the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas for Improving World Order for his book Making and Unmaking Nations:War,Leadership,and Genocide in Modern Africa.
Tharcisse Karugarama is a Rwandan lawyer and politician. A lawyer/attorney by profession,Karugarama was the Minister of Justice and Attorney-General in the Rwandan government for about 7 years.
Génocidaires are Rwandans who are guilty of genocide due to their involvement in the mass killings which were perpetrated in Rwanda during the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi,in which 800,000 Rwandans,primarily Tutsis and moderate Hutu,were murdered by the Interahamwe. In the aftermath of the genocide,Rwandans who organized and led the genocide were put on trial at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Those guilty of lesser crimes,such as participation,profiting through seizing Tutsi property,and the like,were put on trial in gacaca courts. Today,the ICTR has indicted over ninety-three people for genocide. In 2020,Félicien Kabuga,the main financier of the Rwandan Genocide,was found in suburban France after evading capture for over twenty-six years.
Participatory justice,broadly speaking,refers to the direct participation of those affected most by a particular decision,in the decision-making process itself:this could refer to decisions made in a court of law or by policymakers. Popular participation has been called "the ethical seal of a democratic society" by Friedhelm Hengsbach,a professor of Christian Social Science and Economic and Social Ethics at the Philosophical-Theological College Sankt Georgen in Frankfurt and "the politics of the future" by Gene Stephens,professor of criminology at the University of South Carolina. It is about people and relationships.
Anne Aghion is a French-American documentary filmmaker. She is a Guggenheim Fellow,a Mac Dowell Colony Fellow and a Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Center Fellow.
Alison Des Forges was an American historian and human rights activist who specialized in the African Great Lakes region,particularly the 1994 Rwandan genocide. At the time of her death,she was a senior advisor for the African continent at Human Rights Watch. She died in a plane crash on 12 February 2009.
Charles Ayodeji Adeogun-Phillips is a former United Nations genocide and war crimes prosecutor,international lawyer and founder of Charles Anthony (Lawyers) LLP.
Rwandan genocide denial is the pseudohistorical assertion that the Rwandan genocide did not occur,specifically rejection of the scholarly consensus that Rwandan Tutsis were the victims of genocide between 7 April and 19 July 1994. The perpetrators,a small minority of other Hutu,and a fringe of Western writers dispute that reality.
Zachary Daniel Coleman Kaufman is a law professor,political scientist,author,and social entrepreneur. He is currently associate professor of Law and Political Science at the University of Houston Law Center,where he teaches Criminal Law,International Law,and International and Transitional Justice. He also holds appointments at the university's Department of Political Science,Hobby School of Public Affairs,and Elizabeth D. Rockwell Center on Ethics and Leadership. Kaufman specializes in criminal law,international law,international and transitional justice,international courts and tribunals,human rights,atrocity crimes,atrocity prevention and response,legislation,bystanders and upstanders,U.S. foreign policy and national security,the United Nations,social entrepreneurship,and Africa.
Timothy Paul Longman is a professor of political science and international relations at Boston University. A protege of Alison Des Forges,he is recognized as one of the top authorities on the Rwandan genocide and its legacies.
In 1999,Rwanda began its National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC) in order to work towards a reconciliation of the conflicting parties involved in the Rwandan Civil War and the Rwandan genocide,with the eventual goal of reunifying the country’s citizens. The passage of the Government of National Unity Law No. 03/99 provided for the establishment of the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission,which became a permanent body in 2002,and continues its function to the present day. As its name suggests,the Commission is intended to promote unity and reconciliation amongst the former opponents present in the Rwandan population.
Léonidas Rusatira was a colonel in the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR) during the Rwandan genocide in 1994. He was also commander of the Ecole Supérieure Militaire (ESM) military school and Directeur de Cabinet of the Rwanda Ministry of Defence. He was arrested on 15 May 2002 on a warrant issued by Judge Lloyd George Williams. An investigation led by Alison Des Forges convinced the prosecutor to drop the charges against Rusatira.
Aloysie Cyanzayire is a lawyer,judge,public servant,and former president of the Supreme Court of Rwanda,currently serving her second term as Supreme Court justice. She is the first female president of the Supreme Court in Rwanda’s history.
Whispering Truth to Power:Everyday Resistance to Reconciliation in Postgenocide Rwanda is a 2013 non-fiction book by Susan Thomson,published by University of Wisconsin Press.
Yvonne Ntacyobatabara Basebya was a Rwandan-Dutch woman who was the first Dutch citizen to be convicted of incitement to genocide,in relation to the Rwandan genocide of 1994.
Usta Kayitesi is a Rwandan legal scholar who is the former Deputy CEO of the Rwanda governance board (RGB). She succeeded Anastase Shyaka following his appointment as Minister of Local Government (MINALOC).
References
- ↑ "Phil Clark". Wilson Center. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ↑ "Philip Clark Profile". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- 1 2 3 "Professor Phil Clark". SOAS University of London. 9 March 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ↑ "First-Class Matches played by Philip Clark". CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- ↑ "Oxford UCCE v Worcestershire, 2002". CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- ↑ Jones, Will; Clark, Phil; Straus, Scott; Waldorf, Lars (2012). "Review of The Gacaca Courts, Post-Genocide Justice, and Reconciliation in Rwanda, ClarkPhil; Remaking Rwanda: State Building and Human Rights after Mass Violence, StrausScott, WaldorfLars". St Antony's International Review. 7 (2): 186–190. ISSN 1746-451X – via JSTOR.
- ↑ Panepinto, Alice (1 January 2012). "Phil Clark, The Gacaca Courts, Post-Genocide Justice and Reconciliation in Rwanda: Justice Without Lawyers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010, ISBN: 978-0-521-19348-1, 388 pp". International Criminal Law Review. 12 (1): 101–103. doi:10.1163/157181211X617766. ISSN 1571-8123 – via Brill.
- ↑ Nowotny, Jordan. "Book Review: Rwanda's Gacaca Courts: Between Retribution and Reparation". Historical Dialogues, Justice, and Memory Network. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ↑ Rigney, Sophie (15 December 2020). "Distant Justice: The Impact of the International Criminal Court on African Politics". European Journal of International Law. 31 (3): 1157–1161. doi:10.1093/ejil/chaa068. ISSN 0938-5428 – via Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Kelly, Catherine Lena (2021). "Distant Justice: The Impact of the International Criminal Court on African Politics by Phil Clark (review)". African Studies Review. 64 (1): E40–E42. ISSN 1555-2462 – via Project MUSE.
