The cultivation of potatoes is a major part of the agricultural industry of Algeria. The country was the 17th-largest producer of potatoes in the world in 2018. Production is centred on two regions: the Mediterranean coast and the desert around El Oued. Growing conditions in the coast are broadly conventional in earth furrows while at El Oued centre pivot irrigation predominates, with the potatoes grown in sand. Only an insignificant minority of the crop is factory-processed.
Potatoes have been grown in Algeria (then a French colony) since at least the late 19th-century, when problems with the crop being affected by the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella , were reported. [1] Potatoes had become a major crop by 1951 and they were exported to France. In July 1951 growers in Algeria blamed high taxes and railway freight charges for making the crop uneconomic to grow and held a three-day stoppage to attempt to pressure the French government into taking action. Exports elsewhere, such as to the United Kingdom, were hampered by a lack of harbour facilities. [2] By the 1970s, following Algerian independence, potatoes were grown on large scale on government farms in the Mascara Province. In the 1990s the government farms were broken up among private companies and individuals, resulting in an expansion in production. [3] : 17
Algeria is a significant producer of potatoes which are the second most popular staple food in the country, after bread. [3] : 17 In 2018 Algeria produced 4,653,322 tonnes (4,579,830 long tons) of potatoes making it the 17th greatest producer in the world and the 2nd largest in Africa (after Egypt). [4] Production is concentrated in two regions: the coastal region around Mostaganem, Aïn Defla, Boumerdes and Bouira and the desert region centred on El Oued Province. [3] : 6
The warm climate means that potatoes can be grown for 9 months of the year, allowing for three seasons of production. The Premiere (first) season starts January–March and harvests in May–August; the Arrière (last) season starts in August–September and harvests in December while the Primeur (early crop) is little used and only accounts for 5% of production. In general production on the coast is focused on the Premiere season while the desert region concentrates on the Arrière season. [3] : 15 There is a gap in potato supply to market from September to December due to the gap between harvesting seasons. [3] : 16
Seed potatoes can only be imported in January so the Arrière season relies on locally grown seed potatoes or those that have been stored. [3] : 16 Seed potato imports are mainly from the Netherlands and largely from two companies: Agrico and ZPC. [3] : 19 The Algerian government has attempted to support the production of local seed potatoes to reduce reliance on foreign imports and has taken measures to regulate the growing conditions of seed stock to ensure quality. [3] : 10
Potato is the main crop requiring irrigation in Algeria and large volumes of water are used for this: agricultural irrigation accounts for 70-80% of all water use in Algeria. [3] : 6–7 Much of the water used for agriculture is obtained by abstraction from wells as a charge is made for water taken from government reservoirs. [3] : 10 Abstraction has led to a noticeable drop in ground water levels. [3] : 6 Fertilisers are commonly used but purchases are restricted by the government as it can be made into explosives. [3] : 11 There is a low level of mechanisation in the potato-growing sector and much harvesting is done by hand. This is a low status occupation and as a result there are often shortages of labour. [3] : 6 Potato farmers are often members of the two main agricultural cooperatives: the Coopérative Agricole de Services des Approvisionnements (CASAB) and the Cooperative d’Agricole de Guemar. [3] : 11
Potatoes in the coastal region are typically grown in fields of 3–40 hectares (7.4–98.8 acres) in size. [3] : 15 The crop can grown in rotation with cereals or water melon but for most farmers that grow potato it forms the main crop. The main variety grown in the region is Spunta (accounting for 40% of all production) but Condor, Désirée, Fabula and Ultra are also grown. [3] : 17
The soil of the region is heavy and preparation of the ground by tractor ploughing is required before sowing; small farms typically sow by hand but on large farms it is done mechanically. [3] : 20 Coastal farmers also report that the heavy soil makes mechanical harvesting impossible and most harvesting is done by hand. Because labour is so cheap most irrigation is also done manually, by moving hose fed sprinklers around the fields. [3] : 19 The soil of the region is short of organic material and, because organic fertiliser is in short supply there is a heavy reliance on chemical fertilisers. [3] : 20 Fertiliser is typically applied two times each season. [3] : 21
El Oued is an oasis town in the Sahara desert, close to the Tunisian border. The Algerian government provides desert land here free of charge to those that can afford to level the sand dunes and turn the land to agriculture. [3] : 28 Because of the desert conditions artificial irrigation is essential and a wind break must be constructed to protect the crops from being buried by blown sand. [3] : 30 The wind breaks are typically 2 metres (6.6 ft) high sand dunes reinforced with a fence of braided palm leaves on top. [3] : 30
The area was traditionally used for growing date palm but potato production began in 1986 and by 2017 more than 30,000 hectares (74,000 acres) were under cultivation by 47,000 farmers. [3] : 11 : 27 [5] The region now accounts for 40% of all potatoes grown in Algeria, though tomato, melon, tobacco and grain are also grown at El Oued. [3] : 27 The main variety grown is Spunta and most farmers plant to the Arrière season, though in recent years some have switched to the Premiere season. [3] : 28
The farms are typically set up as centre pivot irrigation fields of around 0.9 hectares (2.2 acres) in size. Farms have up to 70 pivots but the majority of farmers maintain 5-10. [3] : 27 The pivot irrigation systems are locally made from aluminium and iron. They complete a full rotation in around 2.5–3 hours and supply water to the crops as a high pressure mist. [3] : 29 : 36 A single well can supply 2-3 pivots and irrigation is applied for 6–8 hours a day for Premiere season crops and 18 hours a day for Arrière season potatoes. [3] : 36 Most irrigation is carried out during the night; some farmers irrigate for 24 hours a day but this is rare due to the higher cost of electricity in the day. [3] : 36 The abstraction of water is gradually depleting the aquifers at El Oued. [3] : 37
Most agricultural work in El Oued is carried out by hand as the ground is loose sand and labour (almost entirely male) is cheap. [3] : 27 : 38 Before planting manure is typically spread on the pivot and throughout the season NPK fertilizer is usually applied three times. [3] : 21 : 32 The potatoes are planted in furrows by hand with 15-20 men taking around 4 hours to plant each pivot. [3] : 29 Harvesting is also done by hand as no machine on the market is capable of harvesting from sand, potatoes usually being grown in earth. [3] : 29 Sometimes the potatoes are left in the sand for 1–3 months due to a lack of storage facilities. [3] : 30
Around 80% of farmers leave the pivot bare for the following season instead of applying crop rotation, but where rotation is practised garlic or onion is typically grown. [3] : 33 Every 2–3 years the sand in the pivot is dug out and replaced to remove diseases and pests (such as nematodes). [3] : 30 Yields achieved at El Oued are typically 40 tonnes (39 long tons) per pivot in the Premiere season and 30 tonnes (30 long tons) in the Arrière season, though the price is higher. [3] : 32 : 39
A number of pests and diseases affect potato production in Algeria. The potato cyst nematode is widely distributed in Algeria in a number of different varieties originating from Europe and South America. [6] The potyviruses Potato leafroll virus, Potato virus A, Potato virus S, Potato virus X and Potato virus Y are all present in Algeria though the Y is by far the most common. [7] Weeds can be an issue and herbicides are commonly applied against these, though some have become resistant. [3] : 23
The Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth) and aphids also cause issues. Large potato farms typically apply insecticide 2-3 time per season to protect against these pests, though smaller farms cannot afford to do this. [3] : 23 Since the 2010s early blight caused by the fungus Alternaria protenta has been reported, particularly in the north-west of the country where it affected 80% of the 2016 crop. [8] The fungi Phytophthora , Rhizoctonia and, sometimes, Fusarium can also cause issues and in the coastal region crops are usually treated with fungicides every 7–8 days. [3] : 23 The bacterium Pectobacterium carotovorum which causes bacterial soft rot is present in Western Algeria and other bacterial diseases known are blackleg and Ralstonia . [9]
The potatoes are sold directly by the farmers at wholesale markets or else to middlemen who sell them to other markets or to shops. [3] : 12 The Algerian Ministry of Agriculture provides a subsidy (Le Système de régulation des produits agricoles de large consommation, SYRPALAC) to growers to store their potatoes, under government control, with the aim of providing a supply in times of shortage. [3] : 10 Storage space is currently limited but more facilities are under construction. [3] : 20 Potatoes are commonly eaten as chips (French fries) which are widely available as street food. The vast majority of these are cut and prepared by hand as there are no Algerian factories producing chips. Some factories do operate to manufacture crisps (potato chips) but less than 1% of Algerian potato production is processed in a factory. [3] : 12
Irrigation is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to these uses, irrigation is also employed to protect crops from frost, suppress weed growth in grain fields, and prevent soil consolidation. It is also used to cool livestock, reduce dust, dispose of sewage, and support mining operations. Drainage, which involves the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location, is often studied in conjunction with irrigation.
Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming, conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital, labour, agrochemicals and water, and higher crop yields per unit land area.
Agribusiness is the industry, enterprises, and the field of study of value chains in agriculture and in the bio-economy, in which case it is also called bio-business or bio-enterprise. The primary goal of agribusiness is to maximize profit while satisfying the needs of consumers for products related to natural resources such as biotechnology, farms, food, forestry, fisheries, fuel, and fiber.
Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus Dioscorea that form edible tubers. The tubers of some other species in the genus, such as D. communis, are toxic. Yams are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in many temperate and tropical regions, especially in West Africa, South America and the Caribbean, Asia, and Oceania. The tubers themselves, also called "yams", come in a variety of forms owing to numerous cultivars and related species.
Worldwide more human beings gain their livelihood from agriculture than any other endeavor; the majority are self-employed subsistence farmers living in the tropics. While growing food for local consumption is the core of tropical agriculture, cash crops are also included in the definition.
Tajikistan is a highly agrarian country, with its rural population at more than 70% and agriculture accounting for 60% of employment and around 20% of GDP in 2020. As is typical of economies dependent on agriculture, Tajikistan has a low income per capita: Soviet Tajikistan was the poorest republic with a staggering 45% of its population in the lowest income “septile”. In 2006 Tajikistan still had the lowest income per capita among the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries: $1,410 compared with nearly $12,000 for Russia. The low income and the high agrarian profile justify and drive the efforts for agricultural reform since 1991 in the hope of improving the population's well-being.
Intensive crop farming is a modern industrialized form of crop farming. Intensive crop farming's methods include innovation in agricultural machinery, farming methods, genetic engineering technology, techniques for achieving economies of scale in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, patent protection of genetic information, and global trade. These methods are widespread in developed nations.
Incan agriculture was the culmination of thousands of years of farming and herding in the high-elevation Andes mountains of South America, the coastal deserts, and the rainforests of the Amazon basin. These three radically different environments were all part of the Inca Empire and required different technologies for agriculture. Inca agriculture was also characterized by the variety of crops grown, the lack of a market system and money, and the unique mechanisms by which the Incas organized their society. Andean civilization was "pristine"—one of six civilizations worldwide which were indigenous and not derivative from other civilizations. Most Andean crops and domestic animals were likewise pristine—not known to other civilizations. Potatoes, tomatoes, chile peppers, and quinoa were among the many unique crops; Camelids and guinea pigs were the unique domesticated animals.
For millennia, agriculture has played an important role in the Chinese economy and society. By the time the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, virtually all arable land was under cultivation; irrigation and drainage systems constructed centuries earlier and intensive farming practices already produced relatively high yields. But little prime virgin land was available to support population growth and economic development. However, after a decline in production as a result of the Great Leap Forward (1958–60), agricultural reforms implemented in the 1980s increased yields and promised even greater future production from existing cultivated land.
Agriculture in Bhutan has a dominant role in the Bhutan's economy. In 2000, agriculture accounted for 35.9% of GDP of the nation. The share of the agricultural sector in GDP declined from approximately 55% in 1985 to 33% in 2003. Despite this, agriculture remains the primary source of livelihood for the majority of the population. Pastoralism and farming are naturally complementary modes of subsistence in Bhutan.
Agriculture in Kenya dominates Kenya's economy. 15–17 percent of Kenya's total land area has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed, and 7–8 percent can be classified as first-class land. In 2006, almost 75 percent of working Kenyans made their living by farming, compared with 80 percent in 1980. About one-half of Kenya's total agricultural output is non-marketed subsistence production.
Agriculture in Sudan plays an important role in that country's economy. Agriculture and livestock raising are the main sources of livelihood for most of the Sudanese population. It was estimated that, as of 2011, 80 percent of the labor force were employed in that sector, including 84 percent of the women and 64 percent of the men.
Agricultural sustainability in Northern Nigeria requires flexibility in both ecological management as well as economic activity. The population densities of the rural area in this region climbed from 243 to 348 people per square kilometer between 1962 and 1991, but the land area under permanent cultivation remained approximately the same. Increasing population results in high food demand among urban and rural dwellers, areas of cultivation, and reduced soil fertility. However, there are instances where frequent agricultural practices is not associated with degradation such as in Kano and neighboring region. Even though poverty and insufficient food exists in the region, it does not affect crop yield owing to sustained efforts to produce food in response to its high demand.
Indigenous horticulture is practised in various ways across all inhabited continents. Indigenous refers to the native peoples of a given area and horticulture is the practice of small-scale intercropping.
Large scale rice production in the state of Arkansas became a significant industry in the late 19th/early 20th century with its wide scale propagation within the state by entrepreneur W.H. Fuller around 1896. Arkansas has historically been the largest rice producer in the entire United States, and accounted for nearly 45% of U.S. rice production in 2001, as well as just less than half of the total number of acres of rice harvested nationwide. Much of Arkansas' rice is grown in the east-central portion of the state, where it requires nearly three times more the amount of irrigation water than the average eleven inches the region receives during the growing season. In the areas of lowest precipitation, or where weedy red rice is a significant problem, farmers follow a three year, three phase "old rotation" of rice-soybean-soybean. However, most Arkansas rice producers follow a two year, two phase crop rotation of rice following soybeans.
Farming systems in India are strategically utilized, according to the locations where they are most suitable. The farming systems that significantly contribute to the agriculture of India are subsistence farming, organic farming, industrial farming. Regions throughout India differ in types of farming they use; some are based on horticulture, ley farming, agroforestry, and many more. Due to India's geographical location, certain parts experience different climates, thus affecting each region's agricultural productivity differently. India is very dependent on its monsoon cycle for large crop yields. India's agriculture has an extensive background which goes back to at least 9 thousand years. In India, in the alluvial plains of the Indus River in Pakistan, the old cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa experienced an apparent establishment of an organized farming urban culture. That society, known as the Harappan or Indus civilization, flourished until shortly after 4000 BP; it was much more comprehensive than those of Egypt or Babylonia and appeared earlier than analogous societies in northern China. Currently, the country holds the second position in agricultural production in the world. In 2007, agriculture and other industries made up more than 16% of India's GDP. Despite the steady decline in agriculture's contribution to the country's GDP, agriculture is the biggest industry in the country and plays a key role in the socio-economic growth of the country. India is the second-largest producer of wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, silk, groundnuts, and dozens more. It is also the second biggest harvester of vegetables and fruit, representing 8.6% and 10.9% of overall production, respectively. The major fruits produced by India are mangoes, papayas, sapota, and bananas. India also has the biggest number of livestock in the world, holding 281 million. In 2008, the country housed the second largest number of cattle in the world with 175 million.
The agricultural practices of the Native Americans inhabiting the American Southwest, which includes the states of Arizona and New Mexico plus portions of surrounding states and neighboring Mexico, are influenced by the low levels of precipitation in the region. Irrigation and several techniques of water harvesting and conservation were essential for successful agriculture. To take advantage of limited water, the southwestern Native Americans utilized irrigation canals, terraces (trincheras), rock mulches, and floodplain cultivation. Success in agriculture enabled some Native Americans to live in communities which numbered in the thousands as compared to their former lives as hunter-gatherers in which their bands numbered only a few dozen.
Current agricultural practices of the Andean region of South America typically involve a synthesis of traditional Incan practices and modern techniques to deal with the unique terrain and climatic elements of the area. Millions of farmers in economically impoverished communities make a living producing staple crops such as potato, olluco, and mashua for their own consumption as well as profit in local and urban markets. The Andean region is particularly known for its wide variety of potato species, boasting over about 5,000 varieties identified by the International Potato Center based in Peru. These crops are arranged within the mountains and plateaus of the Andes in four distinct landscape-based units described as Hill, Ox Area, Early Planting, and Valley which overlap one another in a patchwork-styles of plateau surfaces, steep slopes, and wetland patches. Within each of these units, farmers classify soil types as either puna, suni.
This glossary of agriculture is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in agriculture, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including horticulture, animal husbandry, agribusiness, and agricultural policy. For other glossaries relevant to agricultural science, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of botanical terms.
Cavendish Farms is a Canadian food processing company and subsidiary of the J. D. Irving group of companies. Its headquarters are in Dieppe, New Brunswick and potato processing plants in New Annan, Prince Edward Island, Lethbridge, Alberta, and Jamestown, North Dakota, and an appetizer plant in Wheatley, Ontario. It is the 4th largest processor of frozen potato products in North America. It was established in 1980. The New Annan facility employs about 700 people. It is "one of the largest employers on Prince Edward Island. Cavendish Farms is the "largest private-sector employer on P.E.I." About 80 P.E.I. farmers grow potatoes for Cavendish Farms.
