Product lifetime

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Prince was built 1863 and operated 1864-1936, 1955-1968, 1980-present, a product life of over 150 years, a service life of around 125 years S1 BWH10-8-02.JPG
Prince was built 1863 and operated 1864–1936, 1955–1968, 1980-present, a product life of over 150 years, a service life of around 125 years

Product lifetime or product lifespan is the time interval from when a product is sold to when it is discarded. [1]

Contents

Product lifetime is slightly different from service life because the latter considers only the effective time the product is used. [1] It is also different from product economic life which refers to the point where maintaining a product is more expensive than replacing it; [2] from product technical life which refers to the maximum period during which a product has the physical capacity to function; [3] and from the functional life which is the time a product should last regardless of external intervention to increase its lifespan. [4]

Product lifetime represent an important area of enquiry with regards to product design, the circular economy [5] and sustainable development. [3] This is because products, with the materials involved in their design, production, distribution, use and disposal (across their life cycle), embody carbon due to the energy involved in these processes. [6] Therefore, if product lifetimes can be extended, the use of energy, embodied in carbon, can be reduced and progress can be made towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Bocken et al. [7] term this "Slowing resource loops" (309, their emphasis). In addition, excessive waste generation has been attributed to short-lived goods and a throwaway society. [8]

In recent years, there has been a growth in academic and policy discussions around product lifetimes. For example, discussion of product lifetimes are an integral part of the European Commission's action plan for the circular economy [9] . In academia, the PLATE (Product Lifetimes and the Environment) Consortium hosts regular conferences and seminars around the topic of product lifetimes and the environment (see: http://www.plateconference.org/). In the business world, the Canadian Kijiji platform's Secondhand Economy Index examines how consumers extend product lifetime through secondhand marketplaces, swapping, donating and renting/leasing/lending/pooling (see: https://www.kijiji.ca/kijijicentral/second-hand-economy/).

This article examines how product lifetimes are defined in the academic literature and discusses how product lifetimes can be measured. A distinction is made between the definition and measurement of actual and expected product lifetimes.

Defining product lifetimes

Definitions of product lifetimes vary depending on what aspects those conducting research are interested in. Generally, actual product lifetimes refer to the actual time that a product exists in a particular state. [1] In contrast, expected product lifetimes refer to users' expectations for the lifetime of a product. [10] Additionally, actual and expected product lifetimes are influenced by durability and longevity; these concepts are briefly outlined below.

Durability is described by Cooper [11] as "the ability of a product to perform its required function over a lengthy period under normal use conditions of use without excessive expenditure on maintenance or repair" (p. 5). In contrast, longevity encompasses more than just the material properties of the product. [3] Cooper [3] notes that user behaviour, and broader social and cultural trends play important roles in the product's longevity. The paragraphs below outline the definitions of actual and expected product lifetimes.

Actual product lifetimes

Exhaustive work has been undertaken by Murakami et al. [1] and Oguchi et al. [12] and to outline several definitions and discuss methods for identifying actual product lifetimes. Murkami et al. [1] identify the following overarching concepts in product lifetime definitions which are discussed below: Age, Residential time, Service life, Possession span and Duration of use.

Age

A product's age is the time from when the product was created to either the present or "the time of interest" (: [1] 600) for the researchers.

Residential time

Residential time is considered to be time in which a product, its constituent materials and parts, exists in society. [1] Residential time includes the time in which a product may be broken and/ or discarded. [1]

Service life

According to Murkami et al., [1] the service life of a product refers to the duration of time for which products continue to work and can be used.

Possession span

The possession span is the period of time that a user has possession of the product. [1]

Duration of use

The duration of use indicates how long a user uses the product for. [1] Murkami et al. [1] distinguish duration of use from Service life by noting that duration of use is measured for a specific user, whereas Service life describes the total in-service use of the product for all its users (accounting for transfers of ownership e.g. reuse). Additionally, possession span is distinguished from duration of use, as possession span includes "dead storage" (: [1] 601) time, where a product is owned by a user but not in use (i.e. in storage).

Product lifetime extension

Product lifetime extension business models (PLEBM)

PLE is enacted through various entities that can be generically denominated as product lifetime extension business models (PLEBM) and which aim at improving product design (nature strategies) [13] [14] or increase the lifetime of the product during post-production phases (nurture strategies). [4] Any organization could constitute a PLEBM for as long as it contributes to increase product lifetime. The Product lifetime extension business model (PLEBM) framework is a typology of PLE business models based on Osterwalder and Pigneur's (2010) framework.

Expected product lifetimes

A conference paper by Oguchi et al. [10] sought to identify and test differences in definitions of product lifetime expectations. Oguchi et al. [10] illustrated that previous research into expected product lifetimes has been inconsistent in its use of the term expected product lifetimes. For example, Cooper [15] enquires about "reasonable" expected lifetimes, while Brook Lyndhurst [16] [17] discusses "normal" expected lifetimes. Wieser et al. [18] identified the tension between everyday expectations and desires, distinguishing between these expectations in his study of 21 products. In addition, earlier work by Tasaki et al. [19] and more recent work by WRAP [20] have asked users to report both how long they have owned an item for, and how long they expect to use the item for in future: WRAP [20] term this "active use". Building on these previous studies (described above), Oguchi et al. [10] identified and tested three distinct definitions of expected product lifetimes, these are outlined below.

Intended lifetime

Oguchi et al. [10] define the intended lifetime as the length of time for which a user intends to use the product in question.

Ideal lifetime

The ideal length of time for which a user expects their product to last. Oguchi et al. [10] describe this as "the highest preference of consumers".

Predicted lifetime

The realist prediction by the user of how long a product will last. The user is thought to make this prediction based on their previous experiences and "other relevant factors" (Oguhci et al. [10] ).

Measuring product lifetimes

Academic enquiry into the product lifetimes of electrical and electronic equipment was undertaken in 2000 by Cooper and Mayers [21] who conducted household interviews and focus groups to establish the age at discard (actual product lifetime) and expected lifetimes for 17 products. Since this study, work has been undertaken by other academics into measuring actual and expected product lifetimes; the methods employed are outlined below.

Actual product lifetimes

Actual product lifetimes can be measured using a variety of methods which include: product testing, discard surveys, user interviews and modelling. These are discussed below.

Product testing

Products can be tested under laboratory conditions to assess their lifetime under different conditions of use. [3]

Discard surveys

Oguchi et al. [12] identify that surveys of waste treatment and recycling facilities can provide information on the age of the appliance at break or discard. Identifying information such as the product serial and/ or batch number can be used to find out a date of manufacturer from which the age of the appliance at break or discard can be calculated.

User interviews

Cooper and Mayers [21] conducted household interviews to establish the age of 17 electrical and electronic items at discard and break. However it has been noted that user interviews are subject to the accuracy of memory, and that reviews of products which have failed in the past only provides information on "a historical situation" (: [3] p. 10), not taking into account the features and lifetime of extant products.

Modelling

Product lifetimes can be modelled using extant data from surveys with the application of probability and other statistical concepts (e.g. distributions). [12] [22] One of the earliest attempts to estimate product lifetimes was undertaken by Pennock and Jaeger [23] who utilised actuarial methods to measure the Service life of household goods for one owner. In the 1990s, Bayus [24] modelled car replacement rates and Bayus and Gupta [25] evaluated the user decision-making process and factors around replacement car purchases. [25] In 2010, Oguchi et al. [12] proposed modelling product lifetimes factoring the total number of products shipped and discarded in a year. Oguchi et al. [12] outlined a series of equations which represent lifespan distributions for a given product at a particular point in time.

Expected product lifetimes

Expected product lifetimes are measured at the individual level using survey methods and collectively using focus groups. With the exception of Oguchi et al. [10] and Wieser et al., [18] many studies into expected product lifetimes have not distinguished between the different definitions (outlined above). The methods for measuring expected product lifetimes are outlined below.

Survey methods

Survey methods into expected product lifetimes encompass online questionnaires, [10] [18] household [21] and telephone [26] interviews. These studies asked individual participants to report their expectations for product lifetimes in units of time. Survey methods (such as Oguchi et al. [10] ) can also use Likert items to evaluate if current products meet users expectations with regards to durability and longevity.

Focus groups

Focus groups can be convened where participants take part in discussions to reach a group consensus on product lifetime expectations. [17]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prototype</span> Early sample or model built to test a concept or process

A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process. It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics, and software programming. A prototype is generally used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and users. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one. In some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Product (business)</span> Anything that can be offered to a market

In marketing, a product is an object, or system, or service made available for consumer use as of the consumer demand; it is anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy the desire or need of a customer. In retailing, products are often referred to as merchandise, and in manufacturing, products are bought as raw materials and then sold as finished goods. A service is also regarded as a type of product.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Usability</span> Capacity of a system for its users to perform tasks

Usability can be described as the capacity of a system to provide a condition for its users to perform the tasks safely, effectively, and efficiently while enjoying the experience. In software engineering, usability is the degree to which a software can be used by specified consumers to achieve quantified objectives with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a quantified context of use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Design life</span> Time the creator plans a product to last

The design life of a component or product is the period of time during which the item is expected by its designers to work within its specified parameters; in other words, the life expectancy of the item. It is not always the actual length of time between placement into service of a single item and that item's onset of wearout.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Durability</span> Ability of a product to continue to function

Durability is the ability of a physical product to remain functional, without requiring excessive maintenance or repair, when faced with the challenges of normal operation over its design lifetime. There are several measures of durability in use, including years of life, hours of use, and number of operational cycles. In economics, goods with a long usable life are referred to as durable goods.

In economics and industrial design, planned obsolescence is a policy of planning or designing a product with an artificially limited useful life or a purposely frail design, so that it becomes obsolete after a certain pre-determined period of time upon which it decrementally functions or suddenly ceases to function, or might be perceived as unfashionable. The rationale behind this strategy is to generate long-term sales volume by reducing the time between repeat purchases. It is the deliberate shortening of a lifespan of a product to force people to purchase functional replacements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Service life</span>

A product's service life is its period of use in service. Several related terms describe more precisely a product's life, from the point of manufacture, storage, and distribution, and eventual use. Service life has been defined as "a product's total life in use from the point of sale to the point of discard" and distinguished from replacement life, "the period after which the initial purchaser returns to the shop for a replacement". Determining a product's expected service life as part of business policy involves using tools and calculations from maintainability and reliability analysis. Service life represents a commitment made by the item's manufacturer and is usually specified as a median. It is the time that any manufactured item can be expected to be "serviceable" or supported by its manufacturer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Durable good</span> Good that has long term use

In economics, a durable good or a hard good or consumer durable is a good that does not quickly wear out or, more specifically, one that yields utility over time rather than being completely consumed in one use. Items like bricks could be considered perfectly durable goods because they should theoretically never wear out. Highly durable goods such as refrigerators or cars usually continue to be useful for several years of use, so durable goods are typically characterized by long periods between successive purchases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Final good</span> Commodity which is produced and subsequently consumed by the consumer

A final good or consumer good is a final product ready for sale that is used by the consumer to satisfy current wants or needs, unlike an intermediate good, which is used to produce other goods. A microwave oven or a bicycle is a final good, but the parts purchased to manufacture them are intermediate goods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Throw-away society</span> Human society strongly influenced by consumerism

The throw-away society is a generalised description of human social concept strongly influenced by consumerism, whereby the society tends to use items once only, from disposable packaging, and consumer products are not designed for reuse or lifetime use. The term describes a critical view of overconsumption and excessive production of short-lived or disposable items over durable goods that can be repaired, but at its origins, it was viewed as a positive attribute.

Customer satisfaction is a term frequently used in marketing to evaluate customer experience. It is a measure of how products and services supplied by a company meet or surpass customer expectation. Customer satisfaction is defined as "the number of customers, or percentage of total customers, whose reported experience with a firm, its products, or its services (ratings) exceeds specified satisfaction goals." Enhancing customer satisfaction and fostering customer loyalty are pivotal for businesses, given the significant importance of improving the balance between customer attitudes before and after the consumption process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reuse</span> Using an item again after it has been used, instead of recycling or disposing

Reuse is the action or practice of using an item, whether for its original purpose or to fulfill a different function. It should be distinguished from recycling, which is the breaking down of used items to make raw materials for the manufacture of new products. Reuse – by taking, but not reprocessing, previously used items – helps save time, money, energy and resources. In broader economic terms, it can make quality products available to people and organizations with limited means, while generating jobs and business activity that contribute to the economy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persona (user experience)</span> Personalized fictional characters representing a consumer or user category

A persona in user-centered design and marketing is a personalized fictional character created to represent a user type that might use a site, brand, or product in a similar way. Personas represent the similarities of consumer groups or segments. They are based on demographic and behavioural personal information collected from users, qualitative interviews, and participant observation. Personas are one of the outcomes of market segmentation, where marketers use the results of statistical analysis and qualitative observations to draw profiles, giving them names and personalities to paint a picture of a person that could exist in real life. The term persona is used widely in online and technology applications as well as in advertising, where other terms such as pen portraits may also be used.

A target audience is the intended audience or readership of a publication, advertisement, or other message catered specifically to said intended audience. In marketing and advertising, it is a particular group of consumer within the predetermined target market, identified as the targets or recipients for a particular advertisement or message. Businesses that have a wide target market will focus on a specific target audience for certain messages to send, such as The Body Shops Mother's Day advertisements, which were aimed at the children and spouses of women, rather than the whole market which would have included the women themselves. A target audience is formed from the same factors as a target market, but it is more specific, and is susceptible to influence from other factors. An example of this was the marketing of the USDA's food guide, which was intended to appeal to young people between the ages of 2 and 18.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Owner's manual</span>

An owner's manual is an instructional book or booklet that is supplied with almost all technologically advanced consumer products such as vehicles, home appliances and computer peripherals. Information contained in the owner's manual typically includes:

User experience design defines the experience a user would go through when interacting with a company, its services, and its products.User experience design is a User Centered Design approach because it considers the user's experience when using a product or platform. Research, data analysis, and test results drive design decisions in UX design rather than aesthetic preferences and opinions. Unlike user interface design, which focuses solely on the design of a computer interface, UX design encompasses all aspects of a user's perceived experience with a product or website, such as its usability, usefulness, desirability, brand perception, and overall performance. UX design is also an element of the customer experience (CX), and encompasses all aspects and stages of a customer's experience and interaction with a company.

Disconfirmed expectancy is a psychological term for what is commonly known as a failed prophecy. According to the American social psychologist Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, disconfirmed expectancies create a state of psychological discomfort because the outcome contradicts expectancy. Upon recognizing the falsification of an expected event an individual will experience the competing cognitions, "I believe [X]," and, "I observed [Y]." The individual must either discard the now disconfirmed belief or justify why it has not actually been disconfirmed. As such, disconfirmed expectancy and the factors surrounding the individual's consequent actions have been studied in various settings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">First-time user experience</span>

In human–computer interaction and UI design, a first-time user experience (FTUE) refers to the initial stages of using a piece of software. It commonly includes configuration steps, such as signing up for an account. Every user of a service has their own FTUE, even if they have extensive experience with using a similar product. Patience, time investment, and intuitiveness are factors for a user's FTUE. Software services generally have different layouts, styles, graphics, and hotkeys which must be identified to contribute to a user's learning, mastery, and efficiency of the software. The FTUE is responsible for setting the stage for the experience of the user when interacting with a product down the line. This differs from the out-of-box experience (OOBE), which is specifically about packaging, information presentation, and setup of the system out of the box.

Verification and validation are independent procedures that are used together for checking that a product, service, or system meets requirements and specifications and that it fulfills its intended purpose. These are critical components of a quality management system such as ISO 9000. The words "verification" and "validation" are sometimes preceded with "independent", indicating that the verification and validation is to be performed by a disinterested third party. "Integration verification and validation" can be abbreviated as "IV&V".


Customer experience is the totality of cognitive, affective, sensory, and behavioral customer responses during all stages of the consumption process including pre-purchase, consumption, and post-purchase stages.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Murakami, Shinsuke; Oguchi, Masahiro; Tasaki, Tomohiro; Daigo, Ichiro; Hashimoto, Seiji (2010-08-01). "Lifespan of Commodities, Part I". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 14 (4): 598–612. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00250.x. ISSN   1530-9290. S2CID   157493536.
  2. ↑ Heiskanen, E. "Conditions for product lifetime extension". National Consumption Research Center. 22.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cooper, T (2010). "The significance of product longevity". In Cooper, T. (ed.). Longer Lasting Products: alternatives to the throwaway society. Farnham: Gower. pp. 3–36.
  4. 1 2 Cox, Jayne; Griffith, Sarah; Giorgi, Sara; King, Geoff (2013). "Consumer understanding of product lifetimes". Resources, Conservation & Recycling. 79: 21–29. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.003. ISSN   0921-3449.
  5. ↑ Montalvo, C., Peck, D. and Rietveld, E. (2016). A longer lifetime for products: benefits for consumers and companies (PDF). Brussels: European Parliament's Committee on Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Norman, J.B., Serrenho, A.C., Cooper, S.J.G., Owen, A., Sakai, M., Scott, K., Brockway, P.E., Cooper, S., Giesekam, J., Salvia, G., Cullen, J.M., Barrett, J.R., Cooper, T., Hammond, G.P. and Allwood, J.M. (2016). A whole system analysis of how industrial energy and material demand reduction can contribute to a low carbon future for the UK (PDF). CIE-MAP.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ↑ Bocken, Nancy M. P.; Pauw, Ingrid de; Bakker, Conny; Grinten, Bram van der (2016). "Product design and business model strategies for a circular economy". Journal of Industrial and Production Engineering. 33 (5): 308–320. doi: 10.1080/21681015.2016.1172124 . ISSN   2168-1015.
  8. ↑ Packard, Vance (1963). The Waste Makers. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
  9. ↑ European Commission (2015). Closing the loop - An EU action plan for the Circular Economy. Brussels.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Oguchi, M., Tasaki, T., Daigo, I., Cooper, T., Cole, C. and Gnanapragasam, A. (2016). "Consumers' expectations for product lifetimes of consumer durables.". Electronics Goes Green 2016+ Conference. Berlin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Cooper, T. (1994). Beyond recycling: the longer life option. London: New Economics Foundation.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Oguchi, Masahiro; Murakami, Shinsuke; Tasaki, Tomohiro; Daigo, Ichiro; Hashimoto, Seiji (2010-08-01). "Lifespan of Commodities, Part II". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 14 (4): 613–626. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00251.x. ISSN   1530-9290. S2CID   154898164.
  13. ↑ Bakker, Conny; Wang, Feng; Huisman, Jacob; den Hollander, Marcel (2014). "Products that go round: exploring product life extension through design". Journal of Cleaner Production. 69: 10–16. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.028. ISSN   0959-6526.
  14. ↑ van Nes, Nicole; Cramer, Jacqueline (2003). "Design strategies for the lifetime optimisation of products". The Journal of Sustainable Product Design. 3 (3–4): 101–107. doi:10.1007/s10970-005-2144-8. S2CID   111300945.
  15. ↑ Cooper, Tim (2004). "Inadequate Life? Evidence of Consumer Attitudes to Product Obsolescence" (PDF). Journal of Consumer Policy. 27 (4): 421–449. doi:10.1007/s10603-004-2284-6. ISSN   0168-7034. S2CID   56161987.
  16. ↑ Brook Lyndhurst (2011). Public understanding of product lifetimes and durability (1). London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.
  17. 1 2 Cox, Jayne; Griffith, Sarah; Giorgi, Sara; King, Geoff (2013-10-01). "Consumer understanding of product lifetimes". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. SI: Resourceful Behaviours. 79: 21–29. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.003.
  18. 1 2 3 Wieser, H., Tröger, N. and Hübner, R. "The consumers' desired and expected product lifetimes". Product Lifetimes and The Environment. Nottingham: Nottingham Trent University. pp. 388–393.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ 智宏, 田崎; 淳, 寺園; 祐一, 森口 (2004-01-01). "長期使用とリュース促進のための家電製品・パソコンの廃棄行動実態とその行動要因の調査". 廃棄物学会論文誌. 15 (4): 310–319. doi: 10.3985/jswme.15.310 .
  20. 1 2 Langley, E., Durkacz, S. and Tanase, S. (2013). Clothing longevity and measuring active use. Banbury: WRAP.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. 1 2 3 Cooper, T.; Mayers, K. (2000). Prospects for household appliances. Sheffield: Sheffield Hallam University for E-SCOPE.
  22. ↑ Oguchi, M. (2015). "Methodologies for estimating actual lifetime distribution of products". Product Lifetimes and The Environment. Nottingham: Nottingham Trent University. pp. 388–393.
  23. ↑ Pennock, Jean L.; Jaeger, Carol M. (1957-06-01). "Estimating the Service Life of Household Goods by Actuarial Methods". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 52 (278): 175–185. doi:10.1080/01621459.1957.10501377. ISSN   0162-1459.
  24. ↑ Bayus, Barry L. (1991-01-01). "The Consumer Durable Replacement Buyer". Journal of Marketing. 55 (1): 42–51. doi:10.2307/1252202. JSTOR   1252202.
  25. 1 2 Bayus, Barry L.; Gupta, Sachin (1992-08-01). "An empirical analysis of consumer durable replacement intentions". International Journal of Research in Marketing. 9 (3): 257–267. doi:10.1016/0167-8116(92)90021-C.
  26. ↑ Echegaray, Fabián (2016-10-15). "Consumers' reactions to product obsolescence in emerging markets: the case of Brazil". Journal of Cleaner Production. Special Volume: Transitions to Sustainable Consumption and Production in Cities. 134, Part A: 191–203. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.119. S2CID   153477681.
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