Redshirting (academic)

Last updated

Redshirting is the practice of postponing entrance into kindergarten of age-eligible children in order to allow extra time for socioemotional, intellectual, or physical growth. In the United States, this also refers to creating laws that set cutoff dates slightly before the new year in order to "redshirt" children born in the later part of the calendar year (often September to December) for the same purposes. This occurs most frequently where children's birthdays are so close to the cut-off dates that they are very likely to be among the youngest in their kindergarten class. [1] In the US, more boys than girls are redshirted due to sex-based differences in neurological development. [2]

Contents

Etymology

Redshirting originated as a term for a similar activity but occurring in college sports rather than kindergarten, where a redshirt was "a high-school or college athlete kept out of varsity competition for one year to develop skills and extend eligibility" and originated "from the red shirts worn in practice by such athletes". The term is an Americanism from circa 1950–1955. [3]

Incidence of redshirting

In the United States, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reports that academic redshirting occurs at the rate of about 9% per year among kindergarten-age children, according to surveys from 1993 and 1995. [4] Although modern data suggests this may be inflated, as studies have found only around 4-6% of children are redshirted. [5] The change has been even larger in first grade: over a period of forty years, the proportion of six-year-olds in first grade went from 96% to 84%. [6] Redshirting has traditionally been more common in affluent communities and for children attending private schools, although some scholars speculate that there may have been a recent increase in certain public school districts. [7] According to NCES, boys are more likely to be redshirted than girls, and children born in the latter third of the year (September to December) are five times more likely to be redshirted than those born in the earlier months of the year. The NCES report also shows that white, non-Hispanic children are more than twice as likely as black, non-Hispanic children to have entered kindergarten later than their birthdays allowed. [4]

Redshirting may be a response to demands for a higher level of school readiness. [8] [9] In a United States national survey published in 1998, teachers indicated that 48% of their students were not ready for the current kindergarten curriculum. High percentages of teachers indicated that half of their students lacked important skills, including "following directions" (46%), "academic skills" (36%), and the ability to "work independently" (34%). [10] In light of such data, many scholars suggest that academic curricula are not appropriate for young children. [8] [9] [11]

Effects

Research on redshirting suggests that while some advantages may accrue in the short term, these advantages dissipate by the end of elementary school, and may be replaced by deleterious effects in the long term. Some studies have examined the effects of redshirting that occur immediately or within the early elementary years. Others have examined its long-term effects. Proponents and opponents of redshirting often use the same evidence but reach opposite conclusions. [12] A recent survey of evidence indicates that academic advantages accrue to students who are young for their year, the converse of redshirting. [13] This conclusion continues to be validated in more recent analyses. [14] It is therefore unclear whether redshirting solves problems of school readiness.

Immediate effects

Research on academic redshirting suggests that, in the short term, redshirting (1) raises the child's academic achievement (math, reading, general knowledge) and conduct on par with or above that of younger classmates; [15] (2) increases the child's confidence in social interactions and popularity among classmates; [16] and (3) may simply add to the normal mix of ages and abilities within the classroom.[ citation needed ] However, there is also some speculation that, in classes where there are children who have been redshirted, some older children may feel alienated from their younger classmates, and some older classmates may have an unfair advantage over younger classmates in size and psychomotor and social skills. The presence of children of a wider age span may also make the class too diverse for a teacher to manage well.

Effects in grades 1–3

Researchers have observed other effects of redshirting within the first three years of elementary school, including (1) academic achievement that is nearly equal to that of their grade-level peers, [4] (2) a lower likelihood of receiving "negative feedback from teachers about their academic performance or conduct in class", [4] [17] and (3) less need for special education than classmates who were retained as kindergartners. [8] [18] However, there is also evidence that some first through third-graders who were redshirted as children required greater use of special education services than their non-redshirted and non-retained classmates. [8] [9]

Long-term effects

Proponents of redshirting often assert that there is no definitive evidence to show that redshirting harms children in the long term. Malcolm Gladwell's Outliers discusses the longterm positive effect of redshirting in men's ice hockey, [19] while an old-for-year advantage is not seen for many other sports, and appears to depend on intensive coaching of larger players in early childhood. [13]

In the academic arena, advantages are seen not for older students, but for those who are young for their year. In a large-scale study at 26 Canadian elementary schools, first graders who were young for their year made considerably more progress in reading and math than kindergartners who were old for their year (but just two months younger). [20] In another large study, the youngest fifth-graders scored a little lower than their classmates, but five points higher in verbal I.Q., on average, than fourth-graders of the same age. [21] These studies are consistent with the idea that the source of increased opportunity in this case is school itself, with effects that are more favorable to students who are surrounded by children who are older than themselves.[ citation needed ]

One 1997 study found that adolescents whose school entry had been delayed exhibited more behavioral problems than their classmates. [22] Moreover, in light of evidence of a higher use of special education services by redshirted youths, it has been speculated that many individuals who were redshirted as kindergarteners may have had special needs that were misdiagnosed as immaturity and that should have been treated by some form of direct intervention other than delayed entry. [8] [9]

Sam Wang and Sandra Aamodt focus on redshirting kindergartners in relation to sports, rather than parental appeals to emotional and academic maturity. "The practice, called redshirting—from the term for allowing college athletes to delay participation in sports to prolong their eligibility—also has a connection to children’s sports. As sports-minded parents know, physical maturity allows older children to perform better. Coaches often mistake this difference for natural aptitude and respond by giving the older children on their T-ball or soccer teams more opportunities to improve their skills. And those athletes tend to gain a lasting competitive advantage." [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primary school</span> School for children

A primary school, elementary school, or grade school is a school for primary education of children who are 4 to 10 years of age. Primary schooling follows preschool and precedes secondary schooling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Student</span> Learner, or someone who attends an educational institution

A student is a person enrolled in a school or other educational institution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kindergarten</span> Preschool educational approach

Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. Such institutions were originally made in the late 18th century in Germany, Bavaria and Alsace to serve children whose parents both worked outside home. The term was coined by German pedagogue Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. Today, the term is used in many countries to describe a variety of educational institutions and learning spaces for children ranging from two to six years of age, based on a variety of teaching methods.

Social promotion is the educational practice of promoting a student to the next grade at the end of a school year, regardless of whether they learned the necessary material or if they were often absent. This is done to keep the students with their peers by age, the intended social grouping. It is sometimes referred to as promotion based on seat time, or the time the child spends sitting in school. This is based on the enrollment criteria for kindergarten, which is being 4 or 5 years old at the beginning of the school year. The intention is for the students to be able to graduate from high school-level education before their 19th birthday.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary education in the United States</span> Last six years of statutory formal education before higher level education

Secondary education is the last six or seven years of statutory formal education in the United States. It culminates with twelfth grade. Whether it begins with sixth grade or seventh grade varies by state and sometimes by school district.

In Russia, the state provides most education services regulating education through the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia's expenditure on education has grown from 2.7% of the GDP in 2005 to 4.7% in 2018 but remains below the OECD average of 4.9%.

First grade is the first year of formal or compulsory education. It is the first year of elementary school, and the first school year after kindergarten. Children in first grade are usually 6–7 years old.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primary education in the United States</span>

Primary education in the United States refers to the first seven to nine years of formal education in most jurisdictions, often in elementary schools, including middle schools. Preschool programs, which are less formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of primary education is commonly referred to as kindergarten and begins at or around age 5 or 6. Subsequent years are usually numbered being referred to as first grade, second grade, and so forth. Elementary schools normally continue through sixth grade, which the students normally complete when they are age 11 or 12. Some elementary schools graduate after the 4th or 5th grade and transition students into a middle school.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-kindergarten</span> School program for children before kindergarten

Pre-kindergarten is a voluntary classroom-based preschool program for children below the age of five in the United States, Canada, Turkey and Greece. It may be delivered through a preschool or within a reception year in elementary school. Pre-kindergartens play an important role in early childhood education. They have existed in the US since 1922, normally run by private organizations. The U.S. Head Start program, the country's first federally funded pre-kindergarten program, was founded in 1967. This attempts to prepare children to succeed in school.

Educational stages are subdivisions of formal learning, typically covering early childhood education, primary education, secondary education and tertiary education. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognizes nine levels of education in its International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) system. UNESCO's International Bureau of Education maintains a database of country-specific education systems and their stages. Some countries divide levels of study into grades or forms for school children in the same year.

Universal preschool is an international movement supporting the use of public funding to provide preschool education to all families. This movement is focused on promoting a global, rather than local, preschool program. The goal is to provide equity across all socioeconomic backgrounds, enabling children to improve their academic and social skills before they attend kindergarten. Universal preschool, funded by the public, would allow more families to send their children to preschool.

Grade retention or grade repetition is the process of a student repeating a grade after failing the previous year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avery Coonley School</span> School in Downers Grove, Illinois, United States

The Avery Coonley School (ACS), commonly called Avery Coonley, is an independent, coeducational day school serving academically gifted students in preschool through eighth grade (approximately ages 3 to 14), and is located in Downers Grove, DuPage County, Illinois. The school was founded in 1906 to promote the progressive educational theories developed by John Dewey and other turn-of-the-20th-century philosophers, and was a nationally recognized model for progressive education well into the 1940s. From 1943 to 1965, Avery Coonley was part of the National College of Education (now National Louis University), serving as a living laboratory for teacher training and educational research. In the 1960s, ACS became a regional research center and a leadership hub for independent schools, and began to focus on the education of the gifted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Academic acceleration</span> Moving students through education faster than typical

Academic acceleration is moving students through an educational program at a rate faster or at an age younger than is typical. Students who would benefit from acceleration do not necessarily need to be identified as gifted in a particular subject. Acceleration places them ahead of where they would be in the regular school curriculum. It has been described as a "fundamental need" for gifted students as it provides students with level-appropriate material. The practice occurs worldwide. The bulk of educational research on academic acceleration has been within the United States.

Grade skipping is a form of academic acceleration, often used for academically talented students, that enables the student to skip entirely the curriculum of one or more years of school. Grade skipping allows students to learn at an appropriate level for their cognitive abilities, and is normally seen in schools that group students primarily according to their chronological age, rather than by their individual developmental levels. Grade skipping is usually done when a student is sufficiently advanced in all school subjects, so that they can move forward in all subjects or graduate, rather than in only one or two areas. There are alternatives to grade skipping.

Age appropriateness refers to people behaving as predicted by their perspective timetable of development. The perspective timetable is embedded throughout people's social life, primarily based on socially-agreed age expectations and age norms. For a given behavior, such as crawling, learning to walk, learning to talk, etc., there are years within which the behavior is regarded appropriate. By contrast, if the behavior falls out of the age range, it will be considered age-inappropriate. Most people are adhered to these age norms and are aware of whether their timing is "early," "delayed," or "on time."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Literacy in the United States</span>

Literacy in the United States was categorized by the National Center for Education Statistics into different literacy levels, with 92% of American adults having at least "Level 1" literacy in 2014. Nationally, over 20% of adult Americans have a literacy proficiency at or below Level 1. Adults in this range have difficulty using or understanding print materials. Those on the higher end of this category can perform simple tasks based on the information they read, but adults below Level 1 may only understand very basic vocabulary or be functionally illiterate. According to a 2020 report by Gallup based on data from the U.S. Department of Education, 54% of adults in the United States lack English literacy proficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elementary schools in the United States</span> Primary education in the United States

In the United States, elementary schools are the main point of delivery of primary education, for children between the ages of 4–11 and coming between pre-kindergarten and secondary education.

Elizabeth Dhuey is a Canadian economist specializing in the economics of education. She is an Associate Professor of Economics at the University of Toronto Scarborough and Chairwoman of the Canadian Women Economists Committee through the Canadian Economics Association.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">K–12 education in the United States</span>

K-12 education in the United States includes primary education starting in kindergarten, and secondary education ending in grade 12. Government-funded free schools are generally provided for these grades, but private schools and homeschooling are also possible. Most children begin elementary education with kindergarten and finish secondary education with twelfth grade. In some cases, pupils may be promoted beyond the next regular grade. Parents may also choose to educate their own children at home; 1.7% of children are educated in this manner.

References

  1. Original Article written by Katz, Lilian G.(2000). "Academic Redshirting and young children" (PDF). Elementary and Early Childhood Education. ERIC Clearinghouse.
  2. Redshirt the Boys: Why boys should start school a year later than girls Richard V. Reeves, The Atlantic , September 14, 2022
  3. "redshirting". Dictionary.com. Random House, Inc. 3 September 2014.
  4. 1 2 3 4 West, J.; Meek, A.; Hurst, D. (2000). "Children who enter kindergarten late or repeat kindergarten; Their characteristics and later school performance" (PDF). NCES. 2000–039. U.S. Department of Education.
  5. "Study: 'Redshirting' Kindergarteners Not as Common as Reported". UVA Today. 25 April 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  6. Stephanie Pappas, "More Parents 'Redshirting' Kindergartners", Live Science, 5 September 2010
  7. Brent, D.; May, D.C.; Kundert, D.K. (1996). "The incidence of delayed school entry; A twelve-year review". Early Education and Development. 7 (2): 121–135. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed0702_2. EJ 520 504.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 May, Deborah C.; Deborah K. Kundert; Donna Brent (September 1995). "Does delayed school entry reduce later grade retentions and use of special education services?". Remedial and Special Education. 16 (5): 288–294. doi:10.1177/074193259501600505. S2CID   143188129. EJ 510 039.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Graue, M.E.; DiPerna, J. (2000). "Redshirting and early retention: Who gets the "gift of time" and what are its outcomes?". American Educational Research Journal. 37 (2): 509–534. doi:10.3102/00028312037002509. S2CID   145501011.
  10. (1998) "Kindergarten Transitions". Necdl Spotlights. National Center for Early Development and Learning "NCEDL". Archived from the original on 14 October 2008.
  11. Shepard, L. A.; Smith, M.L. (1988). "Escalating academic demand in kindergarten: Counterproductive policies". Elementary School Journal. 89 (2): 135–145. doi:10.1086/461568. S2CID   143935077. EJ 382 617.
  12. Winnie Hu, "Too Young for Kindergarten? Tide Turning against 4-Year-olds", The New York Times, 27 May 2011.
  13. 1 2 Sam Wang (neuroscientist) and Sandra Aamodt, "Delay Kindergarten At Your Child's Peril", The New York Times, 24 September 2011.
  14. "Is Your Child Ready for Kindergarten? Redshirting may do more harm than good - Education Next". Education Next. 11 April 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
  15. West, J.; Denton, K.; Germino-Hausken, E. (2000). "America's Kindergarteners" (PDF). NCES. 2000 (70). U.S. Department of Education. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2010.
  16. Spitzer, S.; Cupp, R.; Parke, R.D. (1995). "School entrance age, social acceptance, and self-perception in kindergarten and 1st grade". Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 10 (4): 433–450. doi:10.1016/0885-2006(95)90015-2. EJ 516 737.
  17. Cromwell, S (1998). "Starting kindergarten late: How does it affect school performance?". Education World.
  18. Kundert, D.K.; May, D.C.; Brent, D. (1995). "A comparison of students who delay kindergarten entry and those who are retained in grades K-5". Psychology in the Schools. 32 (3): 202–209. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(199507)32:3<202::AID-PITS2310320307>3.0.CO;2-6. EJ 517 406.
  19. Suzanne Collier, citing Gladwell, in Pamela Paul, "The Littlest Redshirts Sit Out Kindergarten", The New York Times, 20 August 2010.
  20. Morrison, F.J.; Griffith, E.M.; Alberts, D.M. (1997). "Nature–Nurture in the Classroom: Entrance Age, School Readiness, and Learning in Children". Developmental Psychology. 33 (2): 254–262. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.2.254. PMID   9147834.
  21. Cohen, S.; Cohen, N. (1989). "Age versus Schooling Effects on Intelligence Development". Child Development. 60 (5): 1239–1249. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1989.tb03554.x. PMID   2805901.
  22. Byrd, R.S.; Weitzman, M.; Auinger, P. (1997). "Increased behavior problems associated with delayed school entry and delayed school progress". Pediatrics. 100 (4): 654–661. doi:10.1542/peds.100.4.654. PMID   9310520.
  23. WANG, SAM; AAMODT, SANDRA (24 September 2011). "Opinion | Delay Kindergarten at Your Child's Peril". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 24 November 2023.

Further reading