Resistance to diversity efforts in organizations

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Resistance (also referred to as backlash) to diversity efforts in organizations is a well-established and ubiquitous phenomenon [1] [2] that may be characterized by thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that undermine the success of diversity-related organizational change initiatives to recruit or retain diverse personnel. [2] The use of such initiatives may be referred to as diversity management. [1] [3] Scholars note the presence of resistance to diversity before and after the civil rights movement; as pressures for diversity and social change increased in the 1960s, dominant group members (i.e. Whites) faced workplace concerns over displacement by minorities. [4]

Contents

In the workforce, resistance to diversity is often studied as resistance to organizational change, which can be construed as hostile and intentional, as well as a subtler occurrence. [2] Some scholars have deemed the "resistance perspective" as reactive, highlighting psychological and behavioral consequences such as denial, avoidance, defiance or manipulation that serve to maintain the status quo. [4] Other scholars define resistance to diversity as the behavior of both individuals and organizations that may undermine diversity-driven opportunities for "learning and effectiveness", whether intentional or not. [2]

Who is resisting

Research on resistors

Research on resistance to diversity has revealed insight into resistors and under which circumstances they resist. Focusing on resistance from the dominant, non-minority group, some have linked diversity resistance to White male backlash [5] [6] or straight, white, American male (SWAM) backlash, [7] although the research may focus on the study of resistance from Whites or men in the context of the research question.

Resistance to workplace racial diversity

Research has documented that some Whites may be resisting the diversity messages of multiculturalism-based ideologies that embrace ethnic differences between groups or colorblind-based ideologies that ignore the ethnic differences between groups—common ideological options for managing diversity in the workforce. [8] Other research found members of high-status groups (i.e. Whites) reacted adversely to pro-diversity organizational messages when compared with non-Whites. This research found White people experience heightened threat in response to pro-diversity messages, and that this threat manifests in physiological (cardiovascular reactions), psychological (self-disclosed concerns), and behavioral (making poorer impressions) domains. [9]

Resistance to workplace gender diversity

Researchers have observed some men will resist gender diversity under certain conditions; the researchers presented men in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) with information that diversity initiatives will effectively increase female representation, which led to resistance among men who believed there is legitimacy to men best-representing STEM (i.e. prototypicality legitimacy) and those who also had concerns about losing the ability to best represent STEM (prototypicality threat). [10]

In 2017, attention was given to the technology industry in light of James Damore's document "Google's Ideological Echo Chamber", [11] [12] which went viral as a prominent example of perceived "anti-diversity" attitudes. [13] [14] The document says Google's current diversity initiatives discriminate against dominant group members (i.e. Whites and males) and foster tension within the organization. [15] In 2016, it was reported that Intel's CEO was threatened in response to his diversity efforts, [16] and Facebook's CEO faced challenges with what he considered the malicious behavior of his employees replacing a "black lives matter" message with an "all lives matter" message. [17]

Scholars and other commentators have also highlighted media-covered examples of resistance to diversity outside of technology, [4] including a Texaco racial discrimination suit in which top-level executives were accused of creating a hostile climate for their diverse employees and were recorded on tape using racial slurs, [18] and the Southern Company racial discrimination lawsuit that included popularized reports of nooses displayed in the facilities. [2] [19]

Possible explanations

General processes of resisting diversity

Some scholars propose that resistance to diversity can generally be understood to be a result of evolved cognitive processes that impact relations between different groups in society. They point to a disconnect between the once-adaptive way humans evolved sensitivity to group differences (e.g. "us" versus "them" tribal boundaries) and some current social environments that contain unprecedented levels of diversity. They propose resistance to diversity may stem from the conflict between automatic social categorization and modern heterogeneous social environments. [20]

Identity threats

As companies attempt to grow diverse workforces and train them to work harmoniously, research suggests minority group progress may induce a threat response from those in the majority group. Researchers Major and Kaiser argue these types of diversity initiatives jeopardize status hierarchies and that this status instability produces threat, even within well-meaning, "prodiversity" progressives. [21]

Racial progress has been shown to negatively impact Whites' self-worth; Whites may buffer this impact by perceiving anti-white bias (i.e. racial discounting). [22] Similarly, researchers have observed increases in social identity threat among men who discuss the instability of men's high status (i.e. changing gender-status relations) with women's. [23]

Another possible threat-related mechanism that could underlie resistance to diversity is prototypicality threat, or the threat that one's sub-group will no longer best represent the broader, superordinate group. [10]

Feelings of exclusion

Although multicultural ideology is commonly used in workplaces, research suggests White individuals may associate multiculturalism with exclusion and may not readily associate multiculturalism with conceptions of the self. This program of research also found the degree to which Whites feel included, relative to minorities, can help explain racial differences in diversity endorsement. Plaut et al suggest socially contextualized cues to inclusion or exclusion can meaningfully impact resistance to diversity. [24]

In response to the association between multiculturalism and feelings of exclusion among members of dominant groups, scholars have called for the use of All-Inclusive Multiculturalism (AIM), or multiculturalism that explicitly includes the dominant group. These researchers noted that whether non-minorities are included or excluded in an article about multiculturalism can implicitly influence their inclusionary associations with the ideology. [8]

Problems with diversity efforts

Commentators and scholars have speculated that diversity training may itself be creating backlash because employees may feel uncomfortable in training environments or resent being told what to do. [25] [7] [26] [27] When examining the sources of resistance to diversity efforts, researchers have said organizations often use negative, legal-focused deterrents within bias training, designate diversity training as mandatory, and associated the training with corrective action for "problem groups". [25]

Consistent with this thinking, researchers documented evidence of a "counter-response" (i.e. rebellion/defiance) when administering brochures or priming participants with controlling conceptualizations of prejudice-reduction, compared with autonomy-supporting conceptualizations. The controlling conceptualizations focused on the need to reduce prejudice and comply with norms of non-prejudice, whereas the autonomy-supporting conceptualizations focused on drawing attention to the choice and personal value involved in non-prejudice. Finding negative outcomes associated with the controlling conditions, they said common organizational efforts to reduce prejudice via control may be unintentionally increasing resistance. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prejudice</span> Attitudes based on preconceived categories

Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived evaluation or classification of another person based on that person's perceived personal characteristics, such as political affiliation, sex, gender, gender identity, beliefs, values, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race, ethnicity, language, nationality, culture, complexion, beauty, height, body weight, occupation, wealth, education, criminality, sport-team affiliation, music tastes or other perceived characteristics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social dominance orientation</span> Personality trait favoring social hierarchies

Social dominance orientation (SDO) is a personality trait measuring an individual's support for social hierarchy and the extent to which they desire their in-group be superior to out-groups. SDO is conceptualized under social dominance theory as a measure of individual differences in levels of group-based discrimination; that is, it is a measure of an individual's preference for hierarchy within any social system and the domination over lower-status groups. It is a predisposition toward anti-egalitarianism within and between groups.

Reverse racism, sometimes referred to as reverse discrimination, is the concept that affirmative action and similar color-conscious programs for redressing racial inequality are forms of anti-white racism. The concept is often associated with conservative social movements and reflects a belief that social and economic gains by black people cause disadvantages for white people.

Realistic conflict theory (RCT), also known as realistic group conflict theory (RGCT), is a social psychological model of intergroup conflict. The theory explains how intergroup hostility can arise as a result of conflicting goals and competition over limited resources, and it also offers an explanation for the feelings of prejudice and discrimination toward the outgroup that accompany the intergroup hostility. Groups may be in competition for a real or perceived scarcity of resources such as money, political power, military protection, or social status.

Aversive racism is a theory proposed by Samuel L. Gaertner & John F. Dovidio (1986), according to which negative evaluations of racial/ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, ambivalent expressions and attitudes nonetheless with prejudicial views towards other races. Aversive racism arises from unconscious personal beliefs taught during childhood. Subtle racist behaviors are usually targeted towards African Americans. Workplace discrimination is one of the best examples of aversive racism. Biased beliefs on how minorities act and think affect how individuals interact with minority members.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stereotype</span> Generalized but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

In social psychology, a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary; it can be, for example, an expectation about the group's personality, preferences, appearance or ability. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, overanalyzed, and inaccurate, and resistant to new information, but can sometimes be accurate.

Symbolic racism is a coherent belief system that reflects an underlying one-dimensional prejudice towards a racialized ethnicity. These beliefs include the stereotype that black people are morally inferior to white people, and that black people violate traditional White American values such as hard work and independence. However, symbolic racism is more of a general term than it is one specifically related to prejudice towards black people. These beliefs may cause the subject to discriminate against black people and to justify this discrimination. Some people do not view symbolic racism as prejudice since it is not linked directly to race but is indirectly linked through social and political issues.

An implicit bias or implicit stereotype is the pre-reflective attribution of particular qualities by an individual to a member of some social out group.

The concept of multicultural and diversity management encompasses acceptance and respect, recognition and valuing of individual differences. Diversity is defined as differences between people, that can include dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies. Multiculturalism refers to the existence of linguistically, culturally and ethnically diverse segments in an organisation.

David O’Keefe Sears is an American psychologist who specializes in political psychology. He is a distinguished professor of psychology and political science at the University of California, Los Angeles where he has been teaching since 1961. He served as dean of social sciences at UCLA between 1983 and 1992. Best known for his theory of symbolic racism, Sears has published many articles and books about the political and psychological origins of race relations in America, as well as on political socialization and life cycle effects on attitudes, the role of self-interest in attitudes, and multiculturalism. He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1991.

There is a great deal of research on the factors that lead to the formation of prejudiced attitudes and beliefs. There is also a lot of research on the consequences of holding prejudiced beliefs and being the target of such beliefs. It is true that advances have been made in understanding the nature of prejudice. A consensus on how to end prejudice has yet to be established, but there are a number of scientifically examined strategies that have been developed in attempt to solve this social issue.

Academic bias is the bias or perceived bias of scholars allowing their beliefs to shape their research and the scientific community. It can refer to several types of scholastic prejudice, e.g., logocentrism, phonocentrism, ethnocentrism or the belief that some sciences and disciplines rank higher than others.

The term shooting bias, also known as "shooter bias", is a proposed form of implicit racial bias which refers to the apparent tendency among the police to shoot black civilians more often than white civilians, even when they are unarmed. In countries where white people aren't the majority, shooting bias may still apply, with different minority groups facing discrimination.

Implicit bias training programs are designed to help individuals become aware of their implicit biases and equip them with tools and strategies to act objectively, limiting the influence of their implicit biases. Some researchers say implicit biases are learned stereotypes that are automatic, seemingly associative, unintentional, deeply ingrained, universal, and able to influence behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intergroup relations</span>

Intergroup relations refers to interactions between individuals in different social groups, and to interactions taking place between the groups themselves collectively. It has long been a subject of research in social psychology, political psychology, and organizational behavior.

Diversity ideology refers to individual beliefs regarding the nature of intergroup relations and how to improve them in culturally diverse societies. A large amount of scientific literature in social psychology studies diversity ideologies as prejudice reduction strategies, most commonly in the context of racial groups and interracial interactions. In research studies on the effects of diversity ideology, social psychologists have either examined endorsement of a diversity ideology as individual difference or used situational priming designs to activate the mindset of a particular diversity ideology. It is consistently shown that diversity ideologies influence how individuals perceive, judge and treat cultural outgroup members. Different diversity ideologies are associated with distinct effects on intergroup relations, such as stereotyping and prejudice, intergroup equality, and intergroup interactions from the perspectives of both majority and minority group members. Beyond intergroup consequences, diversity ideology also has implications on individual outcomes, such as whether people are open to cultural fusion and foreign ideas, which in turn predict creativity.

Bernice Lott was a social psychologist known for her work on feminist psychology, gender, poverty, social class, and prejudice and discrimination. She was Professor Emerita of Psychology and Woman's Studies at the University of Rhode Island and was a former Dean of its University College.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Keith Maddox</span> American social psychologist

Keith Maddox is a professor in the department of psychology at Tufts University. Maddox's research focuses on social cognition, and he is the director of the Tufts University Social Cognition Lab.

Identity safety cues are aspects of an environment or setting that signal to members of stigmatized groups that the threat of discrimination is limited within that environment and/or that their social identities are welcomed and valued. Identity safety cues have been shown to reduce the negative impacts impact of social identity threats, which are when people experience situations where they feel devalued on the basis of a social identity. Such threats have been shown to undermine performance in academic and work-related contexts and make members of stigmatized groups feel as though they do not belong. Identity safety cues have been proposed as a way of alleviating the negative impact of stereotype threat or other social identity threats, reducing disparities in academic performance for members of stigmatized groups, and reducing health disparities caused by identity related stressors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Axes of subordination</span>

In social psychology, the two axes of subordination is a racial position model that categorizes the four most common racial groups in the United States into four different quadrants. The model was first proposed by Linda X. Zou and Sapna Cheryan in the year 2017, and suggests that U.S. racial groups are categorized based on two dimensions: perceived inferiority and perceived cultural foreignness. Support for the model comes from both a target and perceivers perspective in which Whites are seen as superior and American, African Americans as inferior and American, Asian Americans as superior and foreign, and Latinos as inferior and foreign.

References

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  3. ↑ Definition of diversity management. (n.d.). Retrieved December 10, 2017, from http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=diversity-management
  4. 1 2 3 Dass, Parshotam; Parker, Barbara (1999-05-01). "Strategies for managing human resource diversity: From resistance to learning". The Academy of Management Executive. 13 (2): 68–80. doi:10.5465/AME.1999.1899550. ISSN   1558-9080.
  5. ↑ Solomon, Charlene Marmer (1991). "Are white males being left out?". Personnel Journal. 70 (11): 88–92.
  6. ↑ Prime, J., Foust-Cummings, H., Salib, E. R., & Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2012). Calling all White men: Can training help create inclusive workplaces. Catalyst, New York.
  7. 1 2 Karp, H.B.; Sammour, Hael Y. (2000). "Workforce diversity: Choices in diversity training programs & dealing with resistance to diversity". College Student Journal. 34.
  8. 1 2 Stevens, Flannery G.; Plaut, Victoria C.; Sanchez-Burks, Jeffrey (2008-03-01). "Unlocking the Benefits of Diversity". The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 44 (1): 116–133. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.567.1869 . doi:10.1177/0021886308314460. S2CID   46447538.
  9. ↑ Dover, Tessa L.; Major, Brenda; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2016). "Members of high-status groups are threatened by pro-diversity organizational messages". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 62: 58–67. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.006.
  10. 1 2 Danbold, Felix; Huo, Yuen J. (2017). "Men's defense of their prototypicality undermines the success of women in STEM initiatives". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 72: 57–66. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.12.014.
  11. ↑ "Diversity problems in the tech industry go far beyond Google". Vox. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  12. ↑ "Diversity debate divides Silicon Valley". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  13. ↑ "James Damore, the Google employee fired for his controversial manifesto, is (almost certainly) not a victim of a free-speech violation". Business Insider. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  14. ↑ Ehrenkranz, Melanie. "Google Reportedly Fires Author of Anti-Diversity Screed". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  15. ↑ Conger, Kate. "Exclusive: Here's The Full 10-Page Anti-Diversity Screed Circulating Internally at Google [Updated]". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  16. ↑ "Intel CEO Brian Krzanich says he's received threats for trying to hire more minorities". Business Insider. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  17. ↑ Nunez, Michael. "Mark Zuckerberg Asks Racist Facebook Employees to Stop Crossing Out Black Lives Matter Slogans". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  18. ↑ Eichenwald, Kurt (1996-11-04). "Texaco Executives, On Tape, Discussed Impeding a Bias Suit". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  19. ↑ Blackmon, Douglas A.; Harris, Nicole (2001-04-02). "Black Georgia Power Workers Cite Nooses and 'Glass Ceiling' in Bias Suit". Wall Street Journal. ISSN   0099-9660 . Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  20. ↑ Crisp, Richard J.; Meleady, Rose (2012-05-18). "Adapting to a Multicultural Future". Science. 336 (6083): 853–855. Bibcode:2012Sci...336..853C. doi:10.1126/science.1219009. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   22605761. S2CID   21624259.
  21. ↑ Major, Brenda; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2017-06-25). "Ideology and the maintenance of group inequality". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 20 (5): 582–592. doi:10.1177/1368430217712051. S2CID   148884131.
  22. ↑ Wilkins, Clara L.; Hirsch, Alexander A.; Kaiser, Cheryl R.; Inkles, Michael P. (2017-11-01). "The threat of racial progress and the self-protective nature of perceiving anti-White bias". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 20 (6): 801–812. doi:10.1177/1368430216631030. ISSN   1368-4302. S2CID   46226823.
  23. ↑ Scheepers, Daan; Ellemers, Naomi; Sintemaartensdijk, Nieska (2009-10-01). "Suffering from the possibility of status loss: Physiological responses to social identity threat in high status groups". European Journal of Social Psychology. 39 (6): 1075–1092. doi:10.1002/ejsp.609. ISSN   1099-0992.
  24. ↑ Plaut, Victoria C.; Garnett, Flannery G.; Buffardi, Laura E.; Sanchez-Burks, Jeffrey (2011). ""What about me?" Perceptions of exclusion and Whites' reactions to multiculturalism". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 101 (2): 337–353. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.673.6339 . doi:10.1037/a0022832. PMID   21534702.
  25. 1 2 Dobbin, Frank; Kalev, Alexandra. "Why Diversity Programs Fail". Harvard Business Review.
  26. ↑ Pierson, David; Lien, Tracey (2017-08-09). "Diversity training was supposed to reduce bias at Google. In case of fired engineer, it backfired". Los Angeles Times. ISSN   0458-3035 . Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  27. ↑ "Is Your Company's Diversity Training Making You More Biased?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
  28. ↑ Legault, Lisa; Gutsell, Jennifer N.; Inzlicht, Michael (2011-11-28). "Ironic Effects of Antiprejudice Messages". Psychological Science. 22 (12): 1472–1477. doi:10.1177/0956797611427918. PMID   22123778. S2CID   14206109.
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