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A volcano is commonly defined as a vent or fissure in the crust of a planetary-mass object,such as Earth,that allows hot lava,volcanic ash,and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
Methane clathrate (CH4·5.75H2O) or (4CH4·23H2O),also called methane hydrate,hydromethane,methane ice,fire ice,natural gas hydrate,or gas hydrate,is a solid clathrate compound (more specifically,a clathrate hydrate) in which a large amount of methane is trapped within a crystal structure of water,forming a solid similar to ice. Originally thought to occur only in the outer regions of the Solar System,where temperatures are low and water ice is common,significant deposits of methane clathrate have been found under sediments on the ocean floors of the Earth (around 1100 m below the sea level). Methane hydrate is formed when hydrogen-bonded water and methane gas come into contact at high pressures and low temperatures in oceans.
A fumarole is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted,without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcanic activity,but fumarole activity can also precede a volcanic eruption and has been used for eruption prediction. Most fumaroles die down within a few days or weeks of the end of an eruption,but a few are persistent,lasting for decades or longer. An area containing fumaroles is known as a fumarole field.
Volcanism,vulcanism,volcanicity,or volcanic activity is the phenomenon where solids,liquids,gases,and their mixtures erupt to the surface of a solid-surface astronomical body such as a planet or a moon. It is caused by the presence of a heat source,usually internally generated,inside the body;the heat is generated by various processes,such as radioactive decay or tidal heating. This heat partially melts solid material in the body or turns material into gas. The mobilized material rises through the body's interior and may break through the solid surface.
A stratovolcano,also known as a composite volcano,is a typically conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes,stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and explosive eruptions. Some have collapsed summit craters called calderas. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and solidifies before spreading far,due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic,having high to intermediate levels of silica,with lesser amounts of less viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon,but can travel as far as 8 km (5 mi).
A cold seep is an area of the ocean floor where seepage of fluids rich in hydrogen sulfide,methane,and other hydrocarbons occurs,often in the form of a brine pool. Cold does not mean that the temperature of the seepage is lower than that of the surrounding sea water;on the contrary,its temperature is often slightly higher. The "cold" is relative to the very warm conditions of a hydrothermal vent. Cold seeps constitute a biome supporting several endemic species.
A mud volcano or mud dome is a landform created by the eruption of mud or slurries,water and gases. Several geological processes may cause the formation of mud volcanoes. Mud volcanoes are not true igneous volcanoes as they do not produce lava and are not necessarily driven by magmatic activity. Mud volcanoes may range in size from merely 1 or 2 meters high and 1 or 2 meters wide,to 700 meters high and 10 kilometers wide. Smaller mud exudations are sometimes referred to as mud-pots.
Degassing,also known as degasification,is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids,especially water or aqueous solutions. There are numerous methods for removing gases from liquids.
The clathrate gun hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the periods of rapid warming during the Quaternary. The hypothesis is that changes in fluxes in upper intermediate waters in the ocean caused temperature fluctuations that alternately accumulated and occasionally released methane clathrate on upper continental slopes. This would have had an immediate impact on the global temperature,as methane is a much more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Despite its atmospheric lifetime of around 12 years,methane's global warming potential is 72 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over 20 years,and 25 times over 100 years. It is further proposed that these warming events caused the Bond cycles and individual interstadial events,such as the Dansgaard–Oeschger interstadials.
The Sidoarjo mud flow is the result of an erupting mud volcano in the subdistrict of Porong,Sidoarjo in East Java,Indonesia that has been in eruption since May 2006. It is the biggest mud volcano in the world;responsibility for the disaster was assigned to the blowout of a natural gas well drilled by Lapindo Brantas,although company officials contend it was caused by a very distant earthquake that occurred in a different province.
The Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) is a National Science Foundation (NSF) Major Research Facility composed of a network of science-driven ocean observing platforms and sensors in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This networked infrastructure measures physical,chemical,geological,and biological variables from the seafloor to the sea surface and overlying atmosphere,providing an integrated data collection system on coastal,regional and global scales. OOI's goal is to deliver data and data products for a 25-year-plus time period,enabling a better understanding of ocean environments and critical ocean issues.
Arctic methane emissions contribute to a rise in methane concentrations in the atmosphere. Whilst the Arctic region is one of many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane,there is nowadays also a human component to this due to the effects of climate change. In the Arctic,the main human-influenced sources of methane are thawing permafrost,Arctic sea ice melting,clathrate breakdown and Greenland ice sheet melting. This methane release results in a positive climate change feedback,as methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. When permafrost thaws due to global warming,large amounts of organic material can become available for methanogenesis and may therefore be released as methane.
Gerald R. Dickens is Professor of Earth Science at Trinity College Dublin,and researches the history of the world’s oceans,with respect to the changing patterns of their geology,chemistry and biology.
A methane chimney or gas chimney is a rising column of natural gas,mainly methane,within a water or sediment column. The contrast in physical properties between the gas phase and the surrounding water makes such chimneys visible in oceanographic and geophysical data. In some cases,gas bubbles released at the seafloor may dissolve before they reach the ocean surface,but the increased hydrocarbon concentration may still be measured by chemical oceanographic techniques.
Asphalt volcanoes are a rare variety of submarine volcano (seamount). They were unknown before 2003. Several examples have been found along the coasts of the United States and Mexico and elsewhere,some still showing activity. Asphalt volcanoes resemble other seamounts however they are made entirely of asphalt. The structures are thought to form above geologic faults through which petroleum seeps from deeper in the Earth's crust.
Nankai Methane Hydrate Site is located in the Nankai Trough,Japan.
NOASS Okeanos Explorer Gulf of Mexico 2017 Expeditionwas the first of three expeditions on the NOAAS Okeanos Explorer intended to increase the understanding of the deep-sea environment in the Gulf of Mexico. Gulf of Mexico 2017 was a 23-day telepresence-enabled expedition focused on acquiring data on priority exploration areas identified by ocean management and scientific communities. The goal of the expedition was to use remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives and seafloor mapping operations to increase the understanding of the deep-sea ecosystems in these areas to support management decisions. Many of the areas had no sonar data,these areas were top priority for high-resolution bathymetry collection. The expedition established a baseline of information in the region to catalyze further exploration,research,and management activities. The expedition lasted from 29 November 2017 to 21 December 2017.
A gas hydrate pingo is a submarine dome structure formed by the accumulation of gas hydrates under the seafloor.
Bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) are,on seismic reflection profiles,shallow seismic reflection events,characterized by their reflection geometry similar to seafloor bathymetry. . They have,however,the opposite reflection polarity to the seabed reflection,and frequently intersect the primary reflections.
Marta E. Torres is a marine geologist known for her work on the geochemistry of cold seeps and methane hydrates. She is a professor at Oregon State University,and an elected fellow of the Geochemical Society and the Geological Society of America.
References
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- ↑ "The Geological Society of London - Fracked or fiction: so what are the risks associated with shale gas exploitation?". www.geolsoc.org.uk. Retrieved 2024-12-01.
- ↑ "Mud Volcano Was Man-Made, New Evidence Confirms | Wired Science | Wired.com". 2010-03-25. Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ "Indonesian mud volcano flow 'to last 26 years'". BBC News. 2011-02-25. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ "ReFINE - Newcastle University". www.refine.org.uk. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ "Staff Profile | School of Natural and Environmental Sciences | Newcastle University". www.ncl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ Farand, Chloe (2017-11-30). "Fracking Expert: 'We Are Just Doing The Science, But We Are Being Criticised From All Sides'". DeSmog. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ Brown, Jonathan (2013-04-13). "My fracking study was fully independent, says professor - as campaigners say universities have been hijacked by PR machine". The Independent . Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ "Beyond the Barrier - Summer 2018 by Loughborough Schools Foundation - Issuu". issuu.com. 2020-01-28. p. 37. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ adam (2017-11-30). "Maddox Prize 2017 - Sense about Science" . Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ Simon, Matt. "Don't Worry, It's Just 'Fire Ice'". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ "Climate Change Triggers Methane Release From Deep Ocean Hydrate". AZoCleantech. 2023-12-07. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ Davies, Richard (2023-12-08). "Frozen methane under the seabed is thawing as oceans warm – and things are worse than we thought". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ "Melting "fire-ice" unleashes deep methane from beneath the seafloor". Earth.com. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
- ↑ Chadwick, Louis (2024-10-14). "Plymouth University's new Vice-Chancellor puts 'Students first' in opening messages". Plymouth Chronicle. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
