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The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy,conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances,but convictions of unrepentant heresy were handed over to the secular courts,which generally resulted in execution or life imprisonment. The Inquisition had its start in the 12th-century Kingdom of France,with the aim of combating religious deviation,particularly among the Cathars and the Waldensians. The inquisitorial courts from this time until the mid-15th century are together known as the Medieval Inquisition. Other groups investigated during the Medieval Inquisition,which primarily took place in France and Italy,include the Spiritual Franciscans,the Hussites,and the Beguines. Beginning in the 1250s,inquisitors were generally chosen from members of the Dominican Order,replacing the earlier practice of using local clergy as judges.
Marranos were Spanish and Portuguese Jews living in the Iberian Peninsula who converted or were forced to convert to Christianity during the Middle Ages,but continued to practice Judaism in secrecy.
A converso,"convert",was a Jew who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal,particularly during the 14th and 15th centuries,or one of his or her descendants.
Crypto-Judaism is the secret adherence to Judaism while publicly professing to be of another faith;practitioners are referred to as "crypto-Jews".
Anusim is a legal category of Jews in halakha who were forced to abandon Judaism against their will,typically while forcibly converted to another religion. The term "anusim" is most properly translated as the "coerced [ones]" or the "forced [ones]".
Juan de Torquemada,O.P.,,Spanish ecclesiastic,defender of Jewish conversos,has been described as the most articulate papal apologist of the fifteenth century. He was an uncle of Tomás de Torquemada,afterwards notorious as the persecuting Grand Inquisitor.
New Christian was a socio-religious designation and legal distinction in the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire. The term was used from the 15th century onwards primarily to describe the descendants of the Sephardic Jews and Moors baptised into the Catholic Church following the Alhambra Decree. The Alhambra Decree of 1492,also known as the Edict of Expulsion,was an anti-Jewish law made by the Catholic Monarchs upon the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula. It required Jews to convert to Catholicism or be expelled from Spain. Most of the history of the "New Christians" refers to the Jewish converts,who were generally known as Conversos while the Muslim converts were known as Moriscos.
The Alhambra Decree was an edict issued on 31 March 1492,by the joint Catholic Monarchs of Spain ordering the expulsion of practising Jews from the Crowns of Castile and Aragon and its territories and possessions by 31 July of that year. The primary purpose was to eliminate the influence of practising Jews on Spain's large formerly-Jewish converso New Christian population,to ensure the latter and their descendants did not revert to Judaism. Over half of Spain's Jews had converted as a result of the religious persecution and pogroms which occurred in 1391. Due to continuing attacks,around 50,000 more had converted by 1415. A further number of those remaining chose to convert to avoid expulsion. As a result of the Alhambra decree and persecution in the years leading up to the expulsion,of Spain's estimated 300,000 Jewish origin population,a total of over 200,000 had converted to Catholicism to remain in Spain,and between 40,000 and 100,000 remained Jewish and suffered expulsion. An unknown number of the expelled eventually succumbed to the pressures of life in exile away from formerly-Jewish relatives and networks back in Spain,and so converted to Catholicism to be allowed to return in the years following expulsion.:17
The Mexican Inquisition was an extension of the Spanish Inquisition into New Spain. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was not only a political event for the Spanish,but a religious event as well. In the early 16th century,the Reformation,the Counter-Reformation,and the Inquisition were in full force in most of Europe. The Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon had just conquered the last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula,the kingdom of Granada,giving them special status within the Roman Catholic realm,including great liberties in the conversion of the native peoples of Mesoamerica. When the Inquisition was brought to the New World,it was employed for many of the same reasons and against the same social groups as suffered in Europe itself,minus the Indigenous to a large extent. Almost all of the events associated with the official establishment of the Palace of the Inquisition occurred in Mexico City,where the Holy Office had its own "palace". The official period of the Inquisition lasted from 1571 to 1820,with an unknown number of victims.
Limpieza de sangre,also known as limpeza de sangue or neteja de sang,was a racially discriminatory term used in the Spanish and Portuguese Empires during the early modern era to refer to those who were considered to be Old Christians by virtue of not having Muslim or Jewish ancestors. In both empires,the term played a major role in discrimination against crypto-Jews and crypto-Muslims. In Spain's American colonies,it helped define the casta system and was expanded to include those who were not of indigenous or African descent.
The Portuguese Inquisition,officially known as the General Council of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Portugal,was formally established in Portugal in 1536 at the request of its king,John III. Although Manuel I had asked for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515 to fulfill the commitment of his marriage with Maria of Aragon,it was only after his death that Pope Paul III acquiesced. In the period after the Medieval Inquisition,it was one of three different manifestations of the wider Christian Inquisition,along with the Spanish Inquisition and Roman Inquisition. The Goa Inquisition was an extension of the Portuguese Inquisition in colonial-era Portuguese India.
The history of the Jewish Community in Belmonte,Portugal dates back to the 12th century and consists of Spanish and Portuguese Jews who kept their faith alive through the practice of Crypto-Judaism. The Sephardic tradition of Crypto-Judaism is unique and represented a hub of resistance against European Anti-Semitism.
Jacob Barsimson was one of the earliest Jewish settlers at New Amsterdam,and the earliest identified Jewish settler within the present limits of the state of New York. He was an Ashkenazi Jew of Central European background.
The historical revision of the Inquisition is a historiographical process that started to emerge in the 1970s,with the opening of formerly closed archives,the development of new historical methodologies,and,in Spain,the death of the ruling dictator Francisco Franco in 1975. New works of historical revisionism changed our knowledge of the history of the Roman and Spanish Inquisitions.
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition,commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition,was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs,King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. It began toward the end of the Reconquista and was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition,which was under Papal control. It became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Catholic Inquisition along with the Roman Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition. The "Spanish Inquisition" may be defined broadly as operating in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories,which included the Canary Islands,the Kingdom of Naples,and all Spanish possessions in North America and South America. According to modern estimates,around 150,000 people were prosecuted for various offences during the three-century duration of the Spanish Inquisition,of whom between 3,000 and 5,000 were executed,approximately 2.7% of all cases. The Inquisition,however,since the creation of the American courts,never had jurisdiction over the Indians. The King of Spain ordered "that the inquisitors should never proceed against the Indians,but against the old Christians and their descendants and other persons against whom in these kingdoms of Spain it is customary to proceed".
The Atlantic World comprises the interactions among the peoples and empires bordering the Atlantic Ocean rim from the beginning of the Age of Discovery to the early 19th century. Atlantic history is split between three different contexts:trans-Atlantic history,meaning the international history of the Atlantic World;circum-Atlantic history,meaning the transnational history of the Atlantic World;and cis-Atlantic history within an Atlantic context. The Atlantic slave trade continued into the 19th century,but the international trade was largely outlawed in 1807 by Britain. Slavery ended in 1865 in the United States and in the 1880s in Brazil (1888) and Cuba (1886). While some scholars stress that the history of the "Atlantic World" culminates in the "Atlantic Revolutions" of the late 18th early 19th centuries,the most influential research in the field examines the slave trade and the study of slavery,thus in the late-19th century terminus as part of the transition from Atlantic history to globalization seems most appropriate.
The Xuetes are a social group on the Spanish island of Majorca,in the Mediterranean Sea,who are descendants of Majorcan Jews that either were conversos or were Crypto-Jews,forced to keep their religion hidden. They practiced strict endogamy by marrying only within their own group. Many of their descendants observe a syncretist form of Christian worship known as Xueta Christianity.
The history of the Jews in Mexico can be said to have begun in 1519 with the arrival of Conversos,often called Marranos or “Crypto-Jews,”referring to those Jews forcibly converted to Catholicism and that then became subject to the Spanish Inquisition.
Atlantic history is a specialty field in history that studies the Atlantic World in the early modern period. The Atlantic World was created by the discovery of a new land by Europeans,and Atlantic History is the study of that world. It is premised on the idea that,following the rise of sustained European contact with the New World in the 16th century,the continents that bordered the Atlantic Ocean—the Americas,Europe,and Africa—constituted a regional system or common sphere of economic and cultural exchange that can be studied as a totality.
António Fernando de Vasconcelos Nogueira is a Portuguese philosopher,Social Science researcher,author,dramatist,and freelance journalist.
References
- ↑ "Kagan, Richard L." CEEH. Retrieved 2022-06-15.
- ↑ «Richard Kagan». The Johns Hopkins University. April 25, 2018
- ↑ "Richard Kagan". The Academy at Johns Hopkins. Retrieved 2021-08-06.
- ↑ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 2021-08-06.
- ↑ "Académicos Correspondientes extranjeros". Real Academia de la Historia.
- ↑ Owens, J. B. (1975). «Review of Students and Society in Early Modern Spain». The American Journal of Legal History 19 (4): 334-336.
- ↑ Clavero, Bartolomé (1982). «Review of Lawsuits and Litigants in Castile, 1500-1700». The Journal of Modern History 54 (3): 604-606.
- ↑ Herr, Richard (1992). «Review of Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain». The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 22 (3): 513-515.
- ↑ Kagan, Richard L. (1990). Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain (en inglés). University of California Press.
- ↑ Mallory, Nina A. (1992). «Review of Spanish Cities of the Golden Age: The Views of Anton van den Wyngaerde». Renaissance Quarterly 45 (4): 859-862.
- ↑ Schwaller, John F. (1996). «Review of Spain, Europe and the Atlantic World: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott». The Sixteenth Century Journal 27 (1): 185-187
- ↑ Bleznick, Donald W. (2003). «Review of Spain in America: The Origins of Hispanism in the United States»
- ↑ Petry, Yvonne (2006). «Review of Inquisitorial Inquiries: Brief Lives of Secret Jews & Other Heretics». Journal of Church and State 48 (3): 695-697
- ↑ Schaposchnik, Ana (2011). «Review of Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500-1800». Journal of World History 22 (4): 855-857
- ↑ Kagan, Richard L. (2010). Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain
