Related Research Articles
Elam was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a), along with the later Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East. In classical literature, Elam was also known as Susiana, a name derived from its capital Susa.
Jabru was a god who according to Mesopotamian god lists was worshiped in Elam. However, he is not attested in any Elamite sources.
Humban was an Elamite god. He is already attested in the earliest sources preserving information about Elamite religion, but seemingly only grew in importance in the neo-Elamite period, in which many kings had theophoric names invoking him. He was connected with the concept of kitin, or divine protection.
Pinikir, also known as Pinigir, Pirengir, Pirinkir, and Parakaras, was an Ancient Near Eastern astral goddess who originates in Elamite religious beliefs. While she is only infrequently attested in Elamite documents, she achieved a degree of prominence in Hurrian religion. Due to her presence in pantheons of many parts of the Ancient Near East, from Anatolia to Iran, modern researchers refer to her as a "cosmopolitan deity."
Nahhunte was the Elamite sun god. While the evidence for the existence of temples dedicated to him and regular offerings is sparse, he is commonly attested in theophoric names, including these of members of Elamite royal families.
Inshushinak was the tutelary god of the city of Susa in Elam. His name has a Sumerian etymology, and can be translated as "lord of Susa". He was associated with kingship, and as a result appears in the names and epithets of multiple Elamite rulers. In Susa he was the main god of the local pantheon, though his status in other parts of Elam might have been different. He was also connected with justice and the underworld. His iconography is uncertain, though it is possible snakes were his symbolic animals. Two Mesopotamian deities incorporated into Elamite tradition, Lagamal and Ishmekarab, were regarded as his assistants. He was chiefly worshiped in Susa, where multiple temples dedicated to him existed. Attestations from other Elamite cities are less common. He is also attested in Mesopotamian sources, where he could be recognized as an underworld deity or as an equivalent of Ninurta. He plays a role in the so-called Susa Funerary Texts, which despite being found in Susa were written in Akkadian and might contain instructions for the dead arriving in the underworld.
Ištaran was a Mesopotamian god who was the tutelary deity of the city of Der, a city-state located east of the Tigris, in the proximity of the borders of Elam. It is known that he was a divine judge, and his position in the Mesopotamian pantheon was most likely high, but much about his character remains uncertain. He was associated with snakes, especially with the snake god Nirah, and it is possible that he could be depicted in a partially or fully serpentine form himself. He is first attested in the Early Dynastic period in royal inscriptions and theophoric names. He appears in sources from the reign of many later dynasties as well. When Der attained independence after the Ur III period, local rulers were considered representatives of Ištaran. In later times, he retained his position in Der, and multiple times his statue was carried away by Assyrians to secure the loyalty of the population of the city.
Haft Tepe is an archaeological site situated in the Khuzestan Province in south-western Iran, about 15 kilometers southwest of the ancient city of Susa. At this site the possible remains of the Elamite city of Kabnak were discovered in 1908, and excavations are still carried out.
Kiririsha was a major goddess worshiped in Elam.
Inzak was the main god of the pantheon of Dilmun. The precise origin of his name remains a matter of scholarly debate. He might have been associated with date palms. His cult center was Agarum, and he is invoked as the god of this location in inscriptions of Dilmunite kings. His spouse was the goddess Meskilak. A further deity who might have fulfilled this role was dPA.NI.PA, known from texts from Failaka Island.
Napirisha was a major Elamite deity. He likely originated from Anshan.
The Sukkalmah or Epartid dynasty, was an early dynasty of West Asia in the ancient region of Elam, to the southeast of Babylonia. It corresponds to the third Paleo-Elamite period. The Sukkalmah dynasty followed the Shimashki dynasty. The title of Sukkalmah means "Grand Regent" and was used by some Elamite rulers. Numerous cuneiform documents and inscriptions remain from this period, particularly from the area of Susa, making the Sukkalmah period one of the best documented in Elamite history.
Narundi or Narunde was an Elamite goddess worshiped in Susa. She is attested there roughly between 2250 BCE and 1800 BCE. Multiple inscriptions mention her, and it assumed she was a popular deity at the time. In later periods, she occurs exclusively in Mesopotamia, where she played a role in apotropaic rituals in association with the Sebitti. Many attestations are available from late Assyrian sources, but it is not certain if they should be regarded as an indication of continuous worship.
Manzat (Manzât), also spelled Mazzi'at, Manzi'at and Mazzêt, sometimes known by the Sumerian name Tiranna (dTIR.AN.NA) was a Mesopotamian and Elamite goddess representing the rainbow. She was also believed to be responsible for the prosperity of cities.
Simut or Šimut (Shimut) was an Elamite god. He was regarded as the herald of the gods, and was associated with the planet Mars. He was closely associated with Manzat, a goddess representing the rainbow. He appears in inscriptions of various Elamite kings which mention a number of temples dedicated to him. However, it is not known which city served as his main cult center. He was also worshiped in Mesopotamia, where he was compared with the war god Nergal.
Lagamal or Lagamar was a Mesopotamian deity associated chiefly with Dilbat. A female form of Lagamal was worshiped in Terqa on the Euphrates in Upper Mesopotamia. The male Lagamal was also at some point introduced to the pantheon of Susa in Elam.
Ishmekarab (Išmekarab) or Ishnikarab (Išnikarab) was a Mesopotamian deity of justice. The name is commonly translated from Akkadian as "he heard the prayer," but Ishmekarab's gender is uncertain and opinions of researchers on whether the deity was male or female vary.
Šubula (Shubula) was a Mesopotamian god. He was associated with the underworld, and commonly appears in association with Nergal, Ishum, Laṣ and other deities of similar character. He was worshiped in small settlements such as Ṣupur-Šubula and Lagaba, likely located in the proximity of Kutha, but also in Susa and Uruk.
Shilhaha was an Elamite ruler of the 20th century BC. He was first to be attested as sukkalmah in Elam, effectively founding the Sukkalmah Dynasty. At least 11 rulers of this dynasty used the phrase “descendant of Šilhaha” (ruhušak) in their titles as evidence of their legitimacy. Inscriptions on a bronze “gunagi” vessel and on Atta-Hušu cylindroid show that he was contemporary of Ebarat II, one of the last kings of Shimashki.
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Henkelman 2011, p. 449.
- ↑ Mofidi-Nasrabadi 2018, p. 116.
- 1 2 3 Jahangirfar 2018, p. 113.
- ↑ Mofidi-Nasrabadi 2018, p. 120-121.
- ↑ De Graef 2018, p. 129.
- ↑ Mofidi-Nasrabadi 2018, p. 120.
- ↑ Malbran-Labat 2018, p. 465.
- ↑ Potts 1999, p. 223.
- 1 2 De Graef 2013, p. 443.
- ↑ De Graef 2013, p. 444.
- 1 2 Lambert & Winters 2023, p. 295.
- ↑ Zadok 2014, p. 225.
Bibliography
- De Graef, Katrien (2013), "Tan-Ruhurater", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2022-03-25
- De Graef, Katrien (2018). "The Seal of an Official or an Official Seal? The Use of Court Seals in Old Babylonian Susa and Haft Tepe". JAOS. 138 (1): 121–142. doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.138.1.0121. ISSN 2169-2289.
- Henkelman, Wouter F. M. (2011), "Ruhurater", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2022-03-25
- Jahangirfar, Milad (2018). "The Elamite Triads: Reflections on the Possible Continuities in Iranian Tradition". Iranica Antiqua. 53: 105–124. Retrieved 2022-03-25.
- Lambert, W. G.; Winters, Ryan D. (1 August 2023). An = Anum and Related Lists- God Lists of Ancient Mesopotamia, Volume I. Mohr Siebeck GmbH & Co. KG. pp. 1–755. ISBN 978-3-16-161382-1.
- Malbran-Labat, Florence (2018). "Elamite Royal Inscriptions". The Elamite World. Abingdon, Oxon New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-315-65803-2. OCLC 1022561448.
- Mofidi-Nasrabadi, Behzad (1 January 2018). "Who was "dMÙŠ.EREN.EŠŠANA.DINGIR.MEŠ"?". Elamica. 8: 113–126.
- Potts, Daniel (1999). The archaeology of Elam: formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-48961-7. OCLC 813439001.
- Zadok, Ran (2014). "On Population Groups in the Documents from the Time of the First Sealand Dynasty". Tel Aviv. 41 (2). Maney Publishing: 222–237. doi:10.1179/0334435514z.00000000036. ISSN 0334-4355.