An = Anum

Last updated

An = Anum, also known as the Great God List, [1] [2] is the longest preserved Mesopotamian god list, a type of lexical list cataloging the deities worshiped in the Ancient Near East, chiefly in modern Iraq. While god lists are already known from the Early Dynastic period, An = Anum most likely was composed in the later Kassite period.

Contents

While often mistakenly described as a list of Sumerian deities and their Akkadian equivalents, An = Anum is focused on presenting the familial relationships between deities, as well as their courts and spheres of influence. The first four tablets list the major gods and goddesses (Anu, Enlil, Ninhursag, Enki, Sin, Shamash, Adad and Ishtar) and their courts, arranged according to theological principles, but tablets V and VI do not appear to follow a clear system, and tablet VII is a late appendix listing the names of Marduk and one of his courtiers.

Many other works of ancient scholarship were influenced by An = Anum, including a similar list of temples and various theological commentaries. It has also been proposed that it was the basis for the remodeling of the pantheon of Uruk in the Seleucid period.

History of god lists in ancient Mesopotamia

Example of a Mesopotamian lexical list Library of Ashurbanipal synonym list tablet.jpg
Example of a Mesopotamian lexical list

The oldest known god lists come from the Early Dynastic period, [3] and like other cuneiform lexical lists, were presumably copied by scribes as exercises. [4] The first known document of this type is usually called the Fara god list, though it is also known from copies from Abu Salabikh and Uruk. [4] 466 theonyms can be read from the surviving fragments, though it is estimated that it originally contained 560. [5] While it begins with the head of the pantheon, Enlil (or, in some of the copies, Anu and Enlil), the gods are otherwise arranged based on lexical, rather than theological criteria, for example deities whose names start with the sign NIN are grouped together. [6] Due to many of the names from it being otherwise unknown, little can be said about its contents otherwise. [7]

No god lists are known from between the end of the Early Dynastic period and the late third or early second millennium BCE, when the so-called "Weidner list" was compiled, [8] though it is assumed that they were still being created through the second half of the third millennium BCE and examples simply have yet to be discovered. [9] The arrangement of deities in the Weidner list does not appear to follow any specific principles, and it has been proposed that it was the result of compiling various shorter lists together. [10] Copies are known from many locations in historical Babylonia and Assyria, as well as from Emar, Ugarit and Amarna. [11] The list was still in circulation in the late first millennium BCE. [7] Some versions contain additional columns with explanations of the names. [7] A copy from Ugarit adds columns listing Ugaritic and Hurrian deities. [12]

In the Old Babylonian period, god lists were often the product of strictly local scribal traditions, and distinct ones are known from Nippur, Isin, Uruk, Susa, Mari and possibly Ur. [13] Each of these lists most likely documented only the hierarchy of deities recognized in the respective localities. [14] Fragments of many further god lists are known, chiefly from Assyrian copies, but their origin and scope are not fully understood. [15] Some of them focus on geographical distribution on deities, and mention many foreign gods as a result. [2]

While it was common to arrange the names of gods in lists, no analogous scholarly practice is attested for demons, and the incantation series Utukku Lemnutu outright states they were not counted in the "census of Heaven and Earth", indicating the reasons behind this might have been theological. [16]

An = Anum and its forerunners

It is usually assumed that An = Anum was composed in the Kassite period, [1] [17] though a text regarded as its forerunner has been dated to the Old Babylonian period. [18] The most probable date of composition is assumed to be the period between 1300 and 1100 BCE. [19] The name of the list used in modern literature is based on its first line, explaining that the Sumerian name An corresponds to Akkadian Anum. [19] Wilfred G. Lambert proposed that it originated in the city of Babylon. [20] However, according to Jeremiah Peterson, documents from Old Babylonian Nippur indicate that both the An = Anum forerunner and other texts showing the beginning of the development of new lists fleshing out the relations between deities were also in circulation among the theologians of that city. [21]

While the forerunner, sometimes called the "Genouillac god list" after its original publisher, Henri de Genouillac, [22] has only 473 entries, [23] over 2000 names are listed in An = Anum (2123 in the most complete known copy). [24] However, this should not be understood as analogous to the presence of 2000 individual deities, as many of the names are instead epithets or alternate names. [25] It is nonetheless the most extensive known god list. [22]

YBC 2401, the most complete exemplar, was copied by the Assyrian scribe Kidin-Sin during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I according to its colophon. [24] This indicates that while Babylonian in origin, An = Anum already reached Assyria by the final decades of the second millennium BCE. [26] Kidin-Sin wrote that he relied on "old tablets" containing the list. [27] An = Anum continued to be copied in the first millennium BCE. [22] For example, both the list itself and various references to it are known from an archive from Seleucid Uruk. [28] Some of the discovered copies slightly differ from each other. [22]

Modern research and publication

While fragments of An = Anum had already been published in the first half of the twentieth century, [3] a transcription of the most complete copy, presently in the collection of the Yale University, has only been compiled by Richard L. Litke in 1958, [22] and remained unpublished for a long time. [29] In 1976 permission to use Litke's translation was granted to Dietz-Otto Edzard, who was the editor of Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie at the time. [30] Many entries in subsequently compiled volumes of this encyclopedia rely on it. [30] Litke's reconstruction was later published as a book in 1998 in the series Texts from Yale Babylonian Collection . [31]

While a second edition of An = Anum was being prepared by Wilfred G. Lambert for a time, [32] according to William W. Hallo only three first tablets were finished by 1998. [30] Subsequently Lambert also compiled his edition of tablet V. [33] His version remained unpublished as of 2017. [33]

Early restorations sometimes confused fragments of An = Anum and An = Anu ša amēli, but the latter list is now considered to be a distinct work of Mesopotamian scholarship [34] and differs from An = Anum due to having three columns, with the third providing an explanation of the first two. [35]

Contents

An = Anum is commonly understood as a list documenting Akkadian equivalents of Sumerian gods in a manner similar to the process of interpretatio graeca, [19] but according to Richard L. Litke this view is mistaken. [36] The primary goal of the compilers of An = Anum was to clarify the familial relationships between deities, briefly describe their functions and characterize each god's household, rather than to provide Sumerian deities with Akkadian equivalents. [36] The commentary, when present, is in Sumerian, rather than Akkadian, which is different from most lexical lists. [36] The gods do not appear to be separated into strictly Sumerian and Akkadian columns. [37] Furthermore, some gods are listed with no equivalents at all, for example Zababa, who was a well established deity. [38] Some deities listed are not Sumerian or Akkadian, but Elamite, "Subarian" (Hurrian), [39] or Gutian. [40] The list documents many associations between deities and aspects of their character which are otherwise unknown. [17] Explanations frequently use the sign MIN in a role analogous to the modern ditto mark. [41]

The entry of each deity is followed by their epithets and alternate names, the name of their spouse, children, and finally servants, if any were known. [42] In some cases the chief attendant deity, so-called sukkal , is listed before the children. [43] Seemingly only the best established deities had a sukkal. [43] The number and precise designation of various divine servants varies, and there seemingly was no standard composition of a divine court, though some titles, such as "doorkeeper" (NI.GAB) or "counselor" (gu4.DÚB), recur more often than others. [43]

An = Anum consists of seven tablets. [44] The initial four tablets list the deities in order of seniority, alongside their courts, but the rest of the list does not appear to follow similar principles. [26] It is possible that it was a result of adding groups of deities from originally distinct texts to An = Anum without rearranging them. [26] Jeremiah Peterson remarks that the reliance on theological factors is nonetheless more evident in An = Anum than in any other known god list. [45] Some of the copies preserve all the material on a single tablet, [44] with a brief summary marked by pairs of horizontal lines indicating the end of each originally separate section. [27] Copies of long works such as god lists or literary composition inscribed on a single tablet are known as dubgallu or tupkallu, or as "monster tablets". [24] YBC 2401 is one such example, and measures 30.5 × 39.5 centimeters (roughly 12 × 15 inches), which makes it one of the biggest clay tablets known. [46]

Tablet I

Tablet I starts with Anu, Antu [47] and their ancestors. [48] It includes their various servants as well. [49] A sub-section is dedicated to Papsukkal and his circle, including his wife Amasagnudi. [50]

The Enlil section follows the Anu one. It begins with his ancestors, the so-called Enki-Ninki deities, [51] and includes his wife Ninlil, [47] primordial deities Lugaldukuga (explained as Enlil's father) and Enmesharra, [52] as well as various courtiers, among them the goddess of writing, Nisaba, and her husband Haia, Enlil's sukkal Nuska and his wife Sadarnunna, [47] the scribe goddess Ninimma, [53] and the beer goddess Ninkasi. [54] A separate sub-section is dedicated to Ninurta, [26] his wife Nin-Nibru, and his own courtiers. [47] The Syrian god Dagan also appears in the Enlil section. [55] It is additionally possible that a deity whose name is not preserved, identified as "Enlil of Subartu", might be Hurrian Kumarbi. [39]

Tablet II

Ninhursag (Digirmah, Belet-ili) occupies the beginning of tablet II. [56] Deities listed in her section include her husband Šulpae, [57] her sons Panigingarra and Ashgi, [58] the couple Lisin and Ninsikila, [59] and various courtiers. [60]

The same tablet also contains the section focused on Enki (Ea), accompanied by his wife Damkina. [47] A sub-section is dedicated to Marduk [26] and includes his wife Zarpanit. [61] Nabu appears in it as Marduk's sukkal alongside his wife Tashmetum, [62] but he is not yet identified as his son, in contrast with late sources. [63] Other deities present on tablet II include courtiers of Enki, the river god Id, the fire god Gibil, and various minor deities associated with craftsmen and other professions. [47]

Tablet III

Tablet III describes the moon god Sin (unusually not identified directly as a son of Enlil [64] ), the sun god Shamash (Utu) and the weather god Adad (Ishkur). [65] The circle of Sin includes his wife Ningal [66] and various deities associated with cattle herding. [47] Nanshe and deities associated with her, including her husband Nindara, who precedes her, [67] separate his section from that of Shamash. [68] While An = Anum appears to equate Nindara with Sin, there is no evidence for close association between Nanshe and the moon god otherwise. [69] Nin-MAR.KI is placed in the same section as well, but in contrast with earlier sources she is not identified as Nanshe's daughter, which might mean her placement reflected her link to cattle herding instead. [70] The circle of the sun god includes his wife Aya, [71] as well as two distinct groups of courtiers, deities of justice and deities of dreams. [47] The cattle god Sakkan is included in this section too. [72]

While Sin and Shamash occur in the proximity of each other because they were viewed as father and son, [73] Adad is most likely included on this tablet because of the well established connection between him and Shamash. [65] The section dedicated to him includes his wife Shala, their children (such as Uṣur-amāssu), [74] as well as another weather god, Wer, [75] though other foreign weather gods are absent, in contrast with a later god list, K 2100, whose Adad section contains "Subarian" (Hurrian) Teshub and Kassite Buriyash. [76] The tablet ends with a group of various gods mostly associated with Adad or Shamash, such as Shullat and Hanish, though with some exceptions which were instead linked with Ea, Nisaba or Ishtar. [76] It has been proposed that what unified these deities was their possible Syrian origin, [47] but this view is not universally accepted. [65]

Tablet IV

Tablet IV documents the circle of Ishtar (Inanna). [65] Due to its contents, it has been nicknamed "the Ištar tablet" by Richard L. Litke. [77] It is less well preserved than other tablets, and full restoration is presently impossible. [77] Among the deities listed are Ninegal [78] and various astral deities, [79] such as Ninsianna [80] and Kabta. [81] It also most likely originally included Dumuzi and Nanaya sub-sections, which are not preserved. [81] It ends with short sections dedicated to Ishara (who also appears in the Enlil section [55] and in the end of tablet III [65] ) and Manzat, which do survive. [82]

Tablet V

Tablet V starts with the deified hero Lugalbanda and his wife Ninsun, [83] but it also contains sections dedicated to Lugal-Marada, the tutelary god of Marad, [47] the mongoose deity Ninkilim, [84] the agricultural god Urash (his court includes Lagamal, in other lists present among underworld deities), [85] the war god Zababa (whose section also includes Nergal's sukkal Ugur, explicitly identified as such), [86] and a number of names which seem to be grouped together only because they belong to gods originating in Lagash, among them Ningirsu. [26] This god was usually syncretised with Ninurta and as such regarded as a son of Enlil, but in this case appears separately on a different tablet. [26] Other deities of Lagash listed there include Bau and Gatumdug. [87] Juxtaposition of various deities originating in this area is not exclusive to An = Anum, as attested in a small fragment of an otherwise unknown god list found in Nippur. [88] The next sub-section is centered on medicine goddesses (Ninisina, Ninkarrak, Nintinugga, Gula) and their families (including Pabilsag, Damu and Gunura). [89] They are in turn followed by sections dedicated to the prison goddess Manungal, [90] the underworld goddess Ereshkigal, [91] a group of gods associated with snakes and the underworld (Ninazu, Ningishzida, Tishpak, Inshushinak and Ištaran), [92] the pair Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea, [93] who were also underworld deities, but have no apparent connection with the preceding gods, [92] and a number of minor figures of similar character, such as Lugala'abba ("lord of the sea"). [94]

Tablet VI

Tablet VI starts with Nergal, his titles, family and court (including Laṣ, Mammitum and Ishum), [95] continues with various figures explained as ilu lemnu ("evil god"), such as Kingaludda, [96] the weaver goddess Uttu, [97] a group of deities possibly originating in Dilmun, [97] the Sebitti and other groups of seven (as well as the closely connected Elamite goddess Narundi), [98] Amurru, the divine representation of Amorite nomads, and his wife Ashratum, [99] the deified hero Gilgamesh [100] and his companion Enkidu, [47] a number of names belonging to deities of uncertain identity, assumed to be of very minor importance, and a list of collective terms for deities. [101]

Tablet VII

Tablet VII lists various names of Marduk and of his throne bearer Mandanu, [102] and is assumed to be a late addition. [103] According to Wilfred G. Lambert, it should be considered an appendix loosely connected with the rest of the composition, similar to the case of the final tablet of the standard edition of Epic of Gilgamesh . [22]

Influence in antiquity

An = Anum was itself most likely used as a model for other similar scholarly compositions, for example the so-called Canonical Temple Lis, which documents temple names rather than god names, though the deities venerated in them are arranged according to similar theological principles. [1] In some cases, the order of deities in An = Anum has been used to support proposed restoration of passages in the Canonical Temple List, for example Andrew R. George notes that the order in which temples of Enlil's courtiers are listed in the latter matches the order of these deities in the former, making it plausible that three missing lines referred to Ninkasi, Ninmada and Ugelamma. [104]

Paul-Alain Beaulieu proposed in 1992 that the changes in the religion of Seleucid Uruk were inspired by adherence to An = Anum. [105] The entire pantheon of the city was restructured, with Ishtar, Nanaya and their court, encompassing deities such as Uṣur-amāssu, surpassed in prominence by Anu and Antu. [106] While Anu was not completely absent from Uruk at any point in time between the third and first millennium BCE, [106] his position was that of a "figurehead" and "otiose deity", in contrast with An = Anum, where he is the foremost god. [107] Beaulieu considers the position of Marduk to be the main difference between An = Anum the Seleucid pantheon of Uruk, as the position of this god was much lower in the latter case, possibly due to theological conflict between Uruk and Babylon. [107] Today it is agreed that both the elevation of Anu and Antu and the introduction of many new deities, such as Amasagnudi, relied on the study of this god list conducted by priests. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sin (mythology)</span> God of the moon in Mesopotamian mythology

Nanna, Sīn or Suen, and in Aramaic syn, syn’, or even shr 'moon', or Nannar was the god of the moon in the Mesopotamian religions of Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia and Aram. He was also associated with cattle, perhaps due to the perceived similarity between bull horns and the crescent moon. He was always described as a major deity, though only a few sources, mostly these from the reign of Nabonidus, consider him to be the head of the Mesopotamian pantheon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shamash</span> Mesopotamian sun god

Shamash was the ancient Mesopotamian sun god, earlier known as Utu. He was believed to see everything that happened in the world every day, and was therefore responsible for justice and protection of travelers. As a divine judge, he could be associated with the underworld. Additionally, he could serve as the god of divination, typically alongside the weather god Adad. While he was universally regarded as one of the primary gods, he was particularly venerated in Sippar and Larsa.The moon god Nanna (Sin) and his wife Ningal were regarded as his parents, while his twin sister was Inanna (Ishtar). Occasionally other goddesses, such as Manzat and Pinikir, could be regarded as his sisters too. The dawn goddess Aya (Sherida) was his wife, and multiple texts describe their daily reunions taking place on a mountain where the sun was believed to set. Among their children were Kittum, the personification of truth, dream deities such as Mamu, as well as the god Ishum. Utu's name could be used to write the names of many foreign solar deities logographically. The connection between him and the Hurrian solar god Shimige is particularly well attested, and the latter could be associated with Aya as well.

Antu or Antum was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the feminine counterpart and spouse of the sky god, Anu. She was sometimes identified with the earth rather than the sky, though such references are not common. While already attested in the third millennium BCE, she was only a minor goddess, and only came to be worshiped commonly in Uruk in the Achaemenid and Seleucid periods due to religious reforms which elevated her and Anu to the position of tutelary deities of the city. At some point Antu was also incorporated into Hurrian religion, in which she was understood as a primeval deity. In the so-called "Standard Babylonian" edition of the Epic of Gilgamesh Antu is addressed as the mother of Ishtar, but this tradition was not commonly adhered to.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ninsun</span> Mesopotamian goddess, mother of Gilgamesh

Ninsun was a Mesopotamian goddess. She is best known as the mother of the hero Gilgamesh and wife of deified legendary king Lugalbanda, and appears in this role in most versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh. She was associated with Uruk, where she lives in this composition, but she was also worshiped in other cities of ancient Mesopotamia, such as Nippur and Ur, and her main cult center was the settlement KI.KALki.

Zababa was the tutelary deity of the city of Kish in ancient Mesopotamia. He was a war god. While he was regarded as similar to Ninurta and Nergal, he was never fully conflated with them. His worship is attested from between the Early Dynastic to Achaemenid periods, with the Old Babylonian kings being particularly devoted to him. Starting with the Old Babylonian period, he was regarded as married to the goddess Bau.

Ninkasi was the Mesopotamian goddess of beer and brewing. It is possible that in the first millennium BC she was known under the variant name Kurunnītu, derived from a term referring to a type of high quality beer. She was associated with both positive and negative consequences of the consumption of beer. In god lists, such as the An = Anum list and the Weidner god list, she usually appears among the courtiers of the god Enlil, alongside deities such as Ninimma and Ninmada. She could also be paired with Siraš, a goddess of similar character, who sometimes was regarded as her sister. A possible association between her and the underworld deities Nungal and Laṣ is also attested, possibly in reference to the possible negative effects of alcohol consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Damgalnuna</span> Mesopotamian goddess

Damgalnuna, also known as Damkina, was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of the god Enki. Her character is poorly defined in known sources, though it is known that like her husband she was associated with ritual purification and that she was believed to intercede with him on behalf of supplicants. Among the deities regarded as their children were Nanshe and Asalluhi. While the myth Enki and Ninhursag treats her as interchangeable with the goddess mentioned in its title, they were usually separate from each other. The cities of Eridu and Malgium were regarded as Damgalnuna's cult center. She was also worshiped in other settlements, such as Nippur, Sippar and Kalhu, and possibly as early as in the third millennium BCE was incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon. She appears in a number of myths, including the Enūma Eliš, though only a single composition, Damkina's Bond, is focused on her.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sarpanit</span>

Zarpanitu was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the spouse of Marduk. Not much is known about her character, though late sources indicate that she was associated with pregnancy and that she could be assigned similar roles as her husband, including that of queen of the gods. She was originally worshiped in Zarpan, a village near Babylon, though the latter city itself also served as her cult center.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nisaba</span> Mesopotamian goddess of writing

Nisaba was the Mesopotamian goddess of writing and grain. She is one of the oldest Sumerian deities attested in writing, and remained prominent through many periods of Mesopotamian history. She was commonly worshiped by scribes, and numerous Sumerian texts end with the doxology "praise to Nisaba" as a result. She declined after the Old Babylonian period due to the rise of the new scribe god, Nabu, though she did not fully vanish from Mesopotamian religion and attestations from as late as the neo-Babylonian period are known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanaya</span> Ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love

Nanaya was a Mesopotamian goddess of love, closely associated with Inanna.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ningishzida</span> Mesopotamian god

Ningishzida was a Mesopotamian deity of vegetation, the underworld and sometimes war. He was commonly associated with snakes. Like Dumuzi, he was believed to spend a part of the year in the land of the dead. He also shared many of his functions with his father Ninazu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ninshubur</span> Mesopotamian messenger deity

Ninshubur, also spelled Ninšubura, was a Mesopotamian goddess whose primary role was that of the sukkal of the goddess Inanna. While it is agreed that in this context Ninshubur was regarded as female, in other cases the deity was considered male, possibly due to syncretism with other divine messengers, such as Ilabrat. No certain information about her genealogy is present in any known sources, and she was typically regarded as unmarried. As a sukkal, she functioned both as a messenger deity and as an intercessor between other members of the pantheon and human petitioners.

Aya was a Mesopotamian goddess associated with dawn. Multiple variant names were attributed to her in god lists. She was regarded as the wife of Shamash, the sun god. She was worshiped alongside her husband in Sippar. Multiple royal inscriptions pertaining to this city mention her. She was also associated with the Nadītu community inhabiting it. She is less well attested in the other cult center of Shamash, Larsa, though she was venerated there as well. Additional attestations are available from Uruk, Mari and Assur. Aya was also incorporated into Hurrian religion, and in this context she appears as the wife of Shamash's counterpart Šimige.

Papsukkal (𒀭𒉽𒈛) was a Mesopotamian god regarded as the sukkal of Anu and his wife Antu in Seleucid Uruk. In earlier periods he was instead associated with Zababa. He acquired his new role through syncretism with Ninshubur.

Kakka was a Mesopotamian god best known as the sukkal of Anu and Anshar. His cult center was Maškan-šarrum, most likely located in the north of modern Iraq on the banks of the Tigris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manungal</span> Mesopotamian goddess

Nungal, also known as Manungal and possibly Bēlet-balāṭi, was the Mesopotamian goddess of prisons, sometimes also associated with the underworld. She was worshiped especially in the Ur III period in cities such as Nippur, Lagash and Ur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anu</span> Ancient Mesopotamian god of the sky. God of all gods.

Anu or Anum, originally An, was the divine personification of the sky, King of the gods, and ancestor of many of the deities in ancient Mesopotamian religion. He was regarded as a source of both divine and human kingship, and opens the enumerations of deities in many Mesopotamian texts. At the same time, his role was largely passive, and he was not commonly worshipped. It is sometimes proposed that the Eanna temple located in Uruk originally belonged to him, rather than Inanna, but while he is well attested as one of its divine inhabitants, there is no evidence that the main deity of the temple ever changed, and Inanna was already associated with it in the earliest sources. After it declined, a new theological system developed in the same city under Seleucid rule, resulting in Anu being redefined as an active deity. As a result he was actively worshipped by inhabitants of the city in the final centuries of the history of ancient Mesopotamia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ninsianna</span> Mesopotamian astral deity

Ninsianna was a Mesopotamian deity considered to be the personification of Venus. This theonym also served as the name of the planet in astronomical texts until the end of the Old Babylonian period. There is evidence that Ninsianna's gender varied between locations, and both feminine and masculine forms of this deity were worshiped. Due to their shared connection to Venus, Ninsianna was associated with Inanna. Furthermore, the deity Kabta appears alongside Ninsianna in many texts, but the character of the relation between them remains uncertain.

Ningirima was a Mesopotamian goddess associated with incantations, attested already in the Early Dynastic period. She was also associated with snakes, fish and water. According to the god list An = Anum and other sources, she was regarded as a sister of Enlil. While suggestions that she was conflated with the mongoose deity Ninkilim can be found in modern literature, this theory finds no direct support in primary sources.

References

  1. 1 2 3 George 1993, p. 6.
  2. 1 2 Litke 1998, p. 5.
  3. 1 2 Litke 1998, p. 1.
  4. 1 2 Lambert 1971, p. 473.
  5. ↑ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 45.
  6. ↑ Lambert 1971, pp. 473–474.
  7. 1 2 3 Lambert 1971, p. 474.
  8. ↑ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 78.
  9. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 2.
  10. ↑ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 79.
  11. ↑ Tugendhaft 2016, p. 166.
  12. ↑ Tugendhaft 2016, p. 173.
  13. ↑ Peterson 2009, p. 1.
  14. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 2–3.
  15. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 5–6.
  16. ↑ Wiggermann 2011, p. 307.
  17. 1 2 Feliu 2006, p. 232.
  18. ↑ George 1993, p. 166.
  19. 1 2 3 Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 99.
  20. ↑ Lambert 2013, p. 149.
  21. ↑ Peterson 2009, p. 2.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lambert 1971, p. 475.
  23. ↑ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 80.
  24. 1 2 3 Hallo 1998, p. VII.
  25. ↑ Lambert 2016, p. 43.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lambert 2016, p. 44.
  27. 1 2 Litke 1998, p. 17.
  28. 1 2 Krul 2018, p. 80.
  29. ↑ Hallo 1998, pp. V–VI.
  30. 1 2 3 Hallo 1998, p. VI.
  31. ↑ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 329.
  32. ↑ Beaulieu 1992, p. 71.
  33. 1 2 Simons 2017, p. 99.
  34. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 4–5.
  35. ↑ Lambert 1971, pp. 476–477.
  36. 1 2 3 Litke 1998, p. 6.
  37. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 10.
  38. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 13.
  39. 1 2 Feliu 2006, p. 245.
  40. ↑ Sallaberger 2005, p. 304.
  41. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 7–8.
  42. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 6–7.
  43. 1 2 3 Litke 1998, p. 7.
  44. 1 2 Litke 1998, p. 4.
  45. ↑ Peterson 2009, p. 83.
  46. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 16.
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sallaberger 2005, p. 306.
  48. ↑ Lambert 2013, p. 301.
  49. ↑ Beaulieu 1992, p. 57.
  50. ↑ Beaulieu 1992, pp. 49–50.
  51. ↑ Lambert 2013, p. 409.
  52. ↑ Lambert 2013, p. 303.
  53. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 56.
  54. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 61.
  55. 1 2 Feliu 2003, p. 54.
  56. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 66–72.
  57. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 72.
  58. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 74–75.
  59. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 75.
  60. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 76.
  61. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 95.
  62. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 96.
  63. ↑ Lambert 2013, p. 251.
  64. ↑ Lambert 1971, p. 476.
  65. 1 2 3 4 5 Schwemer 2007, p. 145.
  66. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 119.
  67. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 124.
  68. ↑ Boivin 2018, p. 201.
  69. ↑ Boivin 2018, p. 215.
  70. ↑ Sallaberger 1998, p. 465.
  71. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 131.
  72. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 137.
  73. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 128.
  74. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 142–143.
  75. ↑ Schwemer 2007, p. 146.
  76. 1 2 Schwemer 2007, p. 147.
  77. 1 2 Litke 1998, p. 148.
  78. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 155.
  79. ↑ Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013, p. 95.
  80. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 160.
  81. 1 2 Litke 1998, p. 162.
  82. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 166–167.
  83. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 168.
  84. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 171.
  85. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 172.
  86. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 173.
  87. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 174.
  88. ↑ Peterson 2009, p. 95.
  89. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 178–185.
  90. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 185–187.
  91. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 188–190.
  92. 1 2 Wiggermann 1997, p. 34.
  93. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 196–198.
  94. ↑ Lambert 2013, p. 240.
  95. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 199–208.
  96. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 209.
  97. 1 2 Litke 1998, p. 211.
  98. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 211–213.
  99. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 216–219.
  100. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 220.
  101. ↑ George 2003, p. 121.
  102. ↑ Litke 1998, p. 97.
  103. ↑ Litke 1998, pp. 3–4.
  104. ↑ George 1993, p. 24.
  105. ↑ Beaulieu 1992, p. 58.
  106. 1 2 Beaulieu 1992, p. 54.
  107. 1 2 Beaulieu 1992, p. 68.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.